Full Test Bank | Ch7 + Historical Foundations Of Cognitive

Student name:__________

1) Laura Bickford, a master teacher, believes that she needs to encourage her students to think. Which of the following supports her approach?

A) Children write all the time: journals, formal essays, letters, etc.
B) Children use metacognitive strategies: they comment on their learning, have advance discussions before beginning a new project, etc.
C) She is pleased when students just “scratch the surface of their learning.” She purposefully does not encourage them to go deeper, elaborate, and clarify because she does not want to turn them off to the thinking process.
D) Children write all the time and use metacognitive strategies.

2) Which of the following questions would NOT be asked by researchers to illustrate the information-processing approach?

A) What do children notice in the environment?
B) Why is it unimportant to remember what is noticed in the environment?
C) What do children think about the things they notice in the environment?
D) What do children remember?

3) What approach to thinking analyzes how children manipulate information, monitor it, and create strategies for handling it?

A) social learning
B) cognitive monitoring
C) cognitive developmental
D) information processing

4) The main ways for children to use the information-processing approach to overcome processing limitations include all of the following, EXCEPT

A) increasingly executing basic operations.
B) increasing information-processing capacity.
C) developing self-motivation.
D) gaining new knowledge.

5) The two characteristics often referred to as ________ have an important influence on memory and problem solving.

A) cognitive drawbacks
B) capacities
C) cognitive resources
D) mechanisms

6) What is central to the information-processing approach?

A) memory
B) problem solving
C) both memory and problem solving
D) neither memory nor problem solving

7) Developmental changes in ________ are likely influenced by increases in both capacity and speed of processing.

A) computer metaphors
B) information processing
C) computer metaphors and information processing
D) neither computer metaphors nor information processing

8) How fast children can articulate a series of words is an example of

A) cognitive resources.
B) assimilation.
C) abundance.
D) processing speed.

9) According to Siegler, three mechanisms work together to create changes in children’s cognitive skills. Which of the following is NOT one of the mechanisms?

A) encoding
B) automaticity
C) assimilation
D) strategy construction

10) ________ involve(s) encoding, automaticity, and strategy construction.

A) Thinking
B) Mechanisms of change
C) Self-modification
D) All answer choices are correct.

11) ________ refers to the ability to process information with little or no effort.

A) Generalization
B) Automaticity
C) Metacognition
D) Self-modification

12) ________ means “knowing about knowing.”

A) Generalization
B) Automaticity
C) Metacognition
D) Self-modification

13) Dr. Clark is an information-processing theorist, whereas Dr. Cassidy is a Piagetian. In a debate concerning child development, the one thing that they might agree on would be the importance of

A) computer simulations as a way to model human thought.
B) attention and memory as the two basic drives of intelligence.
C) assuming that adults and infants think in virtually the same way.
D) realizing that current understanding affects one’s ability to acquire new understanding.

14) ________ is the focusing of mental resources, which improves cognitive processing for many tasks.

A) Attention
B) Distraction
C) Division
D) Construction

15) When a person is encoding information into memory, it is important to pay attention. A critical skill of paying attention is

A) mental resource.
B) selective attention.
C) lack of focus.
D) shifting.

16) While discussing information-processing development in children, your instructor displays a model of memory and says, “You’d better look at this, because it will be on the exam.” If you follow the advice and look at the display, you are demonstrating

A) agency.
B) ordinality.
C) automaticity.
D) selective attention.

17) Although very young infants lack many of the expressive abilities of adults, the fact that they ________ serves as the foundation of habituation and dishabituation research, which has greatly increased our knowledge concerning infants’ information-processing capacities.

A) get bored
B) have excellent visual skills
C) can generate simple mental images
D) can be taught to produce simple phonemes

18) ________ results when repeated presentations of the same stimulus cause reduced attention to the stimulus.

A) Habituation
B) Dishabituation
C) Memory
D) Shifting

19) ________ is an infant’s renewed interest in a stimulus.

A) Habituation
B) Dishabituation
C) Disequilibration
D) Automaticity

20) Which statement concerning habituation is FALSE?

A) With greater habituation, attention span becomes shorter.
B) It is critical that parents avoid tasks that lead to infant habituation.
C) Parents can use knowledge of habituation and dishabituation to improve interaction with their infant.
D) Researchers study habituation and dishabituation processes over all the sensory systems.

21) In an effort to assess her memory abilities, a researcher presents 5-month-old Chloe with the same visual stimulus over numerous trials. If Chloe begins to pay less attention to the stimulus with each subsequent trial, she is demonstrating

A) memory and habituation.
B) memory and dishabituation.
C) a lack of memory and habituation.
D) a lack of memory and dishabituation.

22) Renewed interest in a stimulus defines

A) habituation.
B) dishabituation.
C) information processing.
D) automaticity.

23) Older children have cognitive control of attention, whereas younger children

A) can’t pay attention at all.
B) attend to what is most salient in the environment.
C) respond the same as older children.
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

24) Some children focus too much on the salient aspects of a situation rather than on what is important. For example, if a clown is giving directions, they will focus on the funny aspects of the clown rather than listening to the directions. When do children outgrow this behavior?

A) Most outgrow it before they leave preschool.
B) Most outgrow it by the time they are 10 to 12 years of age.
C) Most outgrow it after 6 to 7 years of age.
D) Most outgrow it by the time they go to college.

25) Who would most likely be distracted by a book containing three-dimensional “pop-up” pictures?

A) a 4-year-old
B) a 6-year-old
C) an 8-year-old
D) a 10-year-old

26) Which of the following is true of the orienting/investigative process in infancy?

A) Attention in the first year of life is largely absent of the orienting/investigative process.
B) Infants under 6 months of age are largely incapable of sustained attention.
C) Before 9 months of age, infants lack the capacity to deploy their attention flexibly and quickly.
D) In infants, new stimuli typically spark a process that involves sustained attention.

27) Which of the following often contribute(s) to adolescent multitasking?

A) cell phones
B) video games
C) music
D) All answer choices are correct.

28) Controlling ________ is a key part of learning and thinking in adolescence and emerging adulthood when there are distractions in the environment.

A) learning
B) attention
C) avoidance
D) energy

29) Memory involves three major processes:

A) encoding, storage, and retrieval.
B) encoding, dismissal, and storage.
C) storage, attention, and reversal.
D) storage, retrieval, and selection.

30) Memory consists of three major processes. First, there is ________, which involves how information gets into memory. Then there is ________, which consists of the retention of information over time. Last, there is ________, which takes place when information is taken out of storage.

A) retrieval; encoding; storage
B) storage; retrieval; encoding
C) encoding; storage; retrieval
D) retrieval; storage; encoding

31) If you hold a telephone number in your short-term memory, for how long is the information retained without rehearsal?

A) a few seconds
B) 15–30 seconds
C) 2 hours
D) indefinitely

32) What type of memory is relatively permanent and long-lasting?

A) iconic
B) sensory
C) short-term
D) long-term

33) Your working memory is how you manipulate information in your ________ memory.

A) sensory
B) autobiographical
C) short-term
D) long-term

34) One recent study found that the assessment of working memory in kindergarten was a key process in predicting ________ achievement at the end of the first grade.

A) creative thinking
B) emotional control
C) cognitive flexibility
D) science skills

35) ________ state(s) that when individuals reconstruct information, they fit it into information that already exists in their minds.

A) Network theories
B) Schema theory
C) Cognitive-memory theory
D) Metacognition

36) Mental frameworks that organize concepts and information are called

A) schemas.
B) habits.
C) operations.
D) scripts.

37) During each day in kindergarten, 6-year-old Sidney spent 1 hour in organized “naptime.” The next year she entered her new first-grade classroom, looked around, and asked her teacher, “Where are the blankets we will use for naptime?” Sidney’s question provides insight into her

A) automaticity.
B) school schema.
C) sensory memory.
D) ability to habituate.

38) ________ theory states that when individuals encode information, it creates two types of memory representation: (1) ________, which consists of precise details, and (2) ________, which is the central idea of the information.

A) Fuzzy trace; verbatim memory trace; gist
B) Verbatim-memory trace; gist; fuzzy trace
C) Gist; verbatim, fuzzy trace
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

39) When studying content knowledge and expertise, the term “novice” is used to describe

A) a person who has little expertise or knowledge in the studied area.
B) an individual with great specific knowledge, but only in limited areas.
C) someone who is unaware of his or her cognitive limitations.
D) a person with innate knowledge.

40) Carolyn Rovee-Collier places an infant in a crib underneath an elaborate mobile and ties one end of a ribbon to the baby’s ankle and the other end to the mobile. The baby kicks and makes the mobile move. Later the baby is returned to the crib, but its foot is not tied to the mobile. The baby kicks, apparently trying to make the mobile move. This demonstrates that infants ________ information.

A) have no memory for perceptual-motor
B) can remember perceptual-motor
C) can understand perceptual-verbal
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

41) In what way does implicit memory differ from explicit memory?

A) It requires practice for retention.
B) It involves short-term instead of long-term memory.
C) It involves memory of facts and experiences.
D) It requires no conscious effort.

42) ________ memory refers to the conscious memory of facts and experiences.

A) Explicit
B) Implicit
C) Applied
D) Conceptual

43) Infantile or childhood amnesia indicates that most adults can remember little if anything from the first ________ of their life.

A) year
B) 2 years
C) 3 years
D) 4 years

44) What is the cause of infantile amnesia?

A) immaturity of the optical lobe of the brain
B) immaturity of the prefrontal lobes of the brain
C) immaturity of the hypothalamus of the brain
D) immaturity of the Broca’s area of the brain

45) In a memory-span task, Joey hears a short list of stimuli—usually digits presented at a rapid pace (one per second, for example). Then he is asked to repeat the digits. The test is an assessment of ________ memory.

A) short-term
B) long-term
C) assessment
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

46) A psychologist tests the memory span of children. Seven-year-old Perry is asked to recall the following list of numbers: 2, 4, 7, 8, 3, 1, 5. Given the typical short-term memory span of a 7-year-old, how many numbers will Perry remember?

A) 3
B) 4
C) 5
D) 9

47) James is trying to teach his 5-year-old son Kirk the number to dial in case of an emergency. As a memory aid, James says, “Just keep saying the numbers 9, 1, and 1 over and over.” James is attempting to improve Kirk’s memory via

A) imagery.
B) rehearsal.
C) elaboration.
D) organization.

48) Which of the following is true of the effects of mindfulness on thinking?

A) Though beneficial in many ways, it draws one away from active awareness.
B) It is largely unavailable to children and begins mostly in adolescence.
C) It benefits creative thinking over critical thinking.
D) The capacity for empathy can benefit from mindfulness.

49) A good example of showing children how hard it is to retrieve unorganized information is to ask them to recall

A) the 12 months of the year.
B) the 12 months of the year in alphabetical order.
C) the 7 days of the week in alphabetical order.
D) both the 12 months of the year and the 7 days of the week in alphabetical order.

50) A memory strategy in which a child arranges items logically is called

A) imagery.
B) rehearsal.
C) elaboration.
D) organization.

51) Ryan and his daughter Tara are about to go to the grocery store. Before leaving, Ryan shows Tanya a list containing about 12 items and asks her to help him remember what to buy. Ryan hints that it might be easier to remember the items if Tanya thinks in terms of categories like dairy products, fruits, and candy. Ryan’s memory hint involves the memory strategy of

A) elaboration.
B) imagery.
C) organization.
D) rehearsal.

52) The memory strategy of organization is used more by ________ children than ________ children.

A) older; younger
B) younger; older
C) male; female
D) female; male

53) ________ is the term used to refer to more extensive information processing as a memory strategy.

A) Attention-getting
B) Elaboration
C) Automaticity
D) Habituation

54) What memory strategy involves going beyond the basic information given in order to make information more memorable?

A) rehearsal
B) processing speed
C) elaboration
D) habituation

55) The use of elaboration as a memory strategy increases most between

A) infancy and early childhood.
B) early and late childhood.
C) late childhood and late adolescence.
D) late adolescence and young adulthood.

56) Of the following, who would you expect to use elaboration more?

A) a 15-year-old
B) a 12-year-old
C) a 7-year-old
D) a 4-year-old

57) ________ is a strategy that helps improve remembering information.

A) Differentiation
B) Automaticity
C) Creating mental images
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

58) On a vocabulary test, Veronica has to remember the definition of “scrumptious.” Her teacher recommends that she picture herself eating the last delicious “crumb” of her favorite cake. Her teacher is attempting to improve recall by encouraging

A) elaboration.
B) imagery.
C) organization.
D) rehearsal.

59) Which of the following is among the factors that can influence the accuracy of a young child’s memory in eyewitness situations?

A) There are age differences in children’s susceptibility to suggestions.
B) There are individual differences in susceptibility.
C) Interviewing techniques can produce substantial distortions in children’s reports about highly salient events.
D) All answer choices are correct.

60) It is likely that the reliability of young Mallory’s reports as an eyewitness has as much to do with ________ as with ________.

A) Mallory’s skills and motivation; Mallory’s memory
B) the interviewer’s skills and motivation; the natural limitations of the Malory’s memory
C) the interviewer’s memory; Mallory’s motivation
D) Mallory’s skills and motivation; Mallory’s honesty

61) Thinking involves

A) manipulating and transforming information in memory.
B) reasoning.
C) forming concepts.
D) All answer choices are correct.

62) Forming concepts is an important aspect of constructing information. How is this done?

A) Thinking occurs but it is not related to cognition.
B) Cognition occurs but it is not related to thinking.
C) Categorization is used to group objects, events, and characteristics on the basis of common properties.
D) Thinking occurs unrelated to cognition, and categories are used to group objects, events, and characteristics on the basis of common properties.

63) Do infants have concepts?

A) No, they do not.
B) Yes they do, but they do not form concepts until late in their second year.
C) Yes they do, although we do not know how early in their development.
D) Yes, but only if they are perceptually advanced compared to other children their age.

64) Managing one’s thoughts to engage in goal-directed behaviors to exercise self-control is a core component of executive

A) following.
B) formation.
C) function.
D) fraternity.

65) Executive function has been linked to development of the brain’s

A) cerebellum.
B) prefrontal cortex.
C) midbrain.
D) hindbrain.

66) Which of the following is NOT an example of modeling critical thinking for children?

A) asking not only what happened, but “how” and “why”
B) arguing in a reasoned way rather than through emotions
C) focusing on one, and only one, answer
D) evaluating and possibly questioning what other people say rather than immediately accepting it as truth

67) Researchers lament that so few schools really teach students to think critically. Which one of the following does NOT support the researcher’s beliefs?

A) Schools give tests asking students to give a single correct answer.
B) Schools ask children to define or describe things and concepts.
C) Schools ask children to recite.
D) Schools ask children to analyze.

68) Who would NOT be considered to be thinking critically?

A) Jack, who tends to rely heavily on his first impressions
B) Niki, who attempts to grasp the deeper meaning of concepts
C) Vickie, who is tolerant of different perspectives
D) John, who is a reflective thinker

69) Scientific ________ is often aimed at identifying causal relations.

A) connecting
B) reassessment
C) reasoning
D) disassembling

70) What is the difference between the reasoning of children and the reasoning of scientists?

A) Children are influenced by coincidence.
B) Children maintain their old theories regardless of evidence.
C) Children often try to reconcile seemingly contradictory new information with their existing beliefs.
D) All answer choices are correct.

71) ________ involves finding an appropriate way to attain a goal.

A) Metamemory
B) Metaresolve
C) Problem solving
D) Problem stress

72) What are two ways that children solve problems?

A) applying rules and using analogies
B) using analogies and waiting for adult direction
C) applying rules and following peers’ ideas
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

73) During early childhood, the relatively stimulus-driven toddler is transformed into a child capable of flexible, goal-directed problem solving. One element in this change is children’s developing ability to form

A) representations of inverted thought.
B) representations of reality.
C) sensorimotor activities.
D) both representations of inverted thought and sensorimotor activities.

74) Robert Siegler is associated with ________ used in problem-solving research that explored how children use rules to solve problems.

A) the Tower of Hanoi
B) habituation paradigms
C) the balance scale problem
D) metamemory tasks

75) Dr. Willard is attempting to assess 5-year-old Scott’s ability to solve a balance scale problem. Dr. Willard has predicted that Scott would use Siegler’s first rule. In doing so, Dr. Willard expects that Scott will ask himself,

A) “What does balance mean?”
B) “Is there the same number of weights on each side of the scale?”
C) “Are the weights the same distance apart?”
D) “Is the greatest number of weights on the same side as the weight that is the greatest distance from the center?”

76) ________ involves correspondence in some respects between things that are dissimilar.

A) Representation
B) Problem solving
C) Analogy
D) Dishabituation

77) It is safe to say that children often use ________ to solve a problem.

A) only one strategy
B) more than one strategy at a time
C) only previously-used strategies
D) only their parents’ ideas

78) Children should be encouraged to ________ when deciding on which strategies to use.

A) consider questions of what, when, and where
B) consider multiple approaches
C) think about what might work well
D) All answer choices are correct.

79) Michael Pressley emphasized that children benefit when the teacher

A) models the appropriate strategy.
B) verbalizes the steps in the strategy.
C) guides the children to practice the strategy and supports their practice with feedback.
D) All answer choices are correct.

80) Which of the following statements is correct?

A) Just having children learn a new strategy is usually enough for them to continue to use it and to transfer the strategy to a new situation.
B) Just having children learn a new strategy is enough for them to continue to use it, but they are still unable to transfer it to new situations.
C) Just having children learn a new strategy is usually not enough for them to continue to use it and to transfer the strategy to new situations.
D) Just having children learn a new strategy does not guarantee that they will use it, but it is likely that they will transfer the strategy to new situations.

81) According to Pressley, good teaching of a problem-solving strategy involves

A) encouraging children to monitor the strategy’s effectiveness.
B) having the children practice the strategy extensively.
C) teaching children to ignore trivial and redundant information.
D) All answer choices are correct.

82) An important aspect of adolescent learning involves

A) critical thinking.
B) decision making.
C) both critical thinking and decision making.
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

83) The need to get gist is a component of which aspect of the dual-process model?

A) analytical system
B) experiential system
C) high-level cognitive analysis
D) reflective thinking

84) The model in which adolescent decision making involves both analytical and experiential systems is called the ________ model.

A) cognitive
B) dual-process
C) behavioral
D) rational-emotive

85) Jacob knows that it is hard to concentrate on an exam when he is very anxious. This awareness is an example of

A) semantic networks.
B) dishabituation.
C) metacognition.
D) elaboration.

86) ________ includes general knowledge about memory and knowledge about one’s own memory.

A) Metacognitive knowledge
B) Metacognitive activity
C) Metamemory
D) Metacognitive storage

87) In terms of metamemory, children moving through the elementary years

A) become more aware that they know more than they actually do.
B) become more realistic in terms of evaluation of their memory skills.
C) realize that organizing information is useless.
D) do not seek out an analogy to help solve a problem.

88) At 2 and 3 years of age, children begin to understand three mental states:

A) perceptions, physical development, and emotions.
B) perceptions, desires, and emotions.
C) desires, demands, and perceptions.
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

89) Annette is a 5-year-old in preschool. What would you expect of her thinking about her own memory skills?

A) She is withdrawn because she is having trouble remembering the other children’s names.
B) She understands that she may have false beliefs.
C) She believes that other children will beat her in a memory game.
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

90) Which one of the following statements is NOT correct regarding what 5- and 6-year-old children know?

A) They know that familiar items are easier to learn than unfamiliar items.
B) They know that short lists are easier than long ones to remember.
C) They know that recognition is easier than recall.
D) All answer choices are correct.

91) Between ________ years of age, children come to understand that the mind can represent objects and events accurately or inaccurately.

A) 2 and 3
B) 3 and 5
C) 5 and 7
D) 7 and 9

92) Children with autism often exhibit

A) indifference toward others.
B) a desire to be alone.
C) repetitive behavior.
D) All answer choices are correct.

93) Alex, at age 3, is having trouble playing with others. He would rather be alone, has more interest in objects than people, and demonstrates little eye contact. Alex may have a diagnosis of

A) metacognition.
B) mental retardation.
C) autism.
D) slow sociability.

94) Which of the following is true of metacognition in adolescence as compared to childhood?

A) Metacognitive ability does not increase, but the ability to focus metacognition does.
B) There is less or equal metacognition but better meta-level understanding of strategies.
C) There is less individual variation in the capacity for metacognition.
D) Adolescents are better at learning how to deploy their attention.

95) Explain the basic concepts of the information-processing approach.

96) Identify the three mechanisms working together to change a child’s cognitive skills according to Robert Siegler.

97) How does the information-processing approach compare with Piaget’s theory?

98) List and describe four ways children can allocate their attention.

99) Compare and contrast habituation and dishabituation, giving one example of each.

100) Identify the three factors necessary to the development of joint attention.

101) Name and explain three types of memory.

102) Compare and contrast the methods of constructing memories with schema theory and fuzzy trace theory.

103) Identify and give one example of the following memory strategies: (1) organization (2) elaboration (3) imagery.

104) Critical thinking involves thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidence. If a child is thinking critically, what are some strategies that can be observed?

105) Compare and contrast the problem solving of children through applying rules and by using analogies, with two examples of each.

106) List three mental states that 3-year-old Cole can likely understand.

107) Compare and contrast five areas of change in metacognition from childhood to adolescence.