Complete Test Bank Chapter 13 Gender

Student name:__________

1) Jewel Cash has used her abilities to demonstrate

A) the sex differences in math aptitude.
B) children’s comprehension of time and distance.
C) children’s ability to mentally rotate objects.
D) the positive side of moral development.

2) Regarding the accomplishments of Jewel Cash, which of the following statements is FALSE?

A) She garnered support for a winter jobs program.
B) She believed that work did not have to be shared equitably.
C) She believed that there should be prohibitions against locking tardy students out of the classroom.
D) She is personally motivated to help others.

3) Dr. Henry asks his subjects questions like, “How should teachers treat their students?” What is he likely to be interested in?

A) androgyny
B) behaviorism
C) moral development
D) identification theory

4) The rules people use to interact with one another are part of

A) morals.
B) rapport talk.
C) the false self.
D) self-schema.

5) Which of the following is NOT a domain of social-cognitive domain theory?

A) social
B) conventional
C) moral
D) public

6) What has recent research revealed that suggests a shortcoming in Piaget’s theory?

A) Children never truly believe in immanent justice.
B) There are no “stages” of moral development.
C) Young children’s moral advancements are more consistent than he believed.
D) Children show more non-egocentric awareness than he believed.

7) Imagine that you visited Piaget when he was still alive, and a colleague told you that he was researching children’s understanding of rules and moral development. Since you are familiar with Piaget’s methods, where would you expect to find him?

A) in a lab with a primate colony
B) on an elementary school playground
C) in church
D) at a college basketball game

8) Piaget believed that children think in which two distinct ways about morality?

A) indirect and direct
B) intrinsically and extrinsically
C) preconventional and conventional
D) heteronomous and autonomous

9) Six-year-old Dylan is taught a card game in which aces are “wild.” His friend suggests that they make all the eights wild as well. Dylan insists that this is impossible as only aces can be wild. Piaget would describe Dylan as being in the stage of ________ morality.

A) autonomous
B) immanent
C) conventional
D) heteronomous

10) Which best reflects the reasoning of a child in the heteronomous morality stage?

A) “Did I do that?”
B) “Question authority.”
C) “Rules were made to be broken.”
D) “Right is right and wrong is wrong.”

11) When considering the goodness of an act, what does an autonomous thinker focus on?

A) immediacy of consequences
B) fairness
C) universal conventions
D) intentions of the individual involved

12) Kirby’s peer group always agrees that each of them should get 10 tries at hitting a pitched ball. When two younger children want to play, the group agrees that the younger kids should each get 20 tries. Kirby’s group’s behavior indicates

A) a fear of immanent justice.
B) preconventional moral thought.
C) autonomous thinking.
D) heteronomous thinking.

13) At which Piagetian stage of moral development does a child believe in immanent justice?

A) autonomous morality
B) heteronomous morality
C) social-system morality
D) punishment and obedience morality

14) Immanent justice is best thought of as ________ justice.

A) intrusive
B) intensive
C) immediate
D) individual

15) Ian has been told by his psychology instructor that cheating is forbidden. On his first exam, Ian is overcome by temptation and looks at the answer sheet of the person sitting next to him. Ian then begins to sweat in anticipation of the punishment that he believes the instructor is about to deliver. This behavior demonstrates the concept of

A) autonomous moral reasoning.
B) postconventional thinking.
C) immanent justice.
D) the care perspective.

16) After reading an article by Piaget, parents would be most likely to attempt to improve their child’s level of moral reasoning by

A) presenting the child with hypothetical moral dilemmas.
B) encouraging the child to interact with other children the parents respect.
C) talking with the child about the difference between right and wrong.
D) doing nothing, since morality cannot be taught.

17) What research method did Kohlberg use to develop his theory of moral development?

A) field experiments on children
B) longitudinal studies of families
C) interviews with and observation of children
D) case studies of children

18) Your best friend Jessica recently participated in a psychological study. When you ask her how it went, she says, “It was easy. I was just asked what I thought about some Heinz guy who stole drugs for a living.” Jessica was in a study of moral development based on the methods of

A) Sandra Bem.
B) Carol Gilligan.
C) Walter Mischel.
D) Lawrence Kohlberg.

19) Who used moral dilemmas to study moral development?

A) Carol Gilligan
B) Jean Piaget
C) Lawrence Kohlberg
D) Walter Mischel

20) What is the first stage in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

A) individualism and purpose
B) preconventional reasoning
C) punishment and obedience orientation
D) social systems morality

21) A child who says he should not lie to his parents because he would get punished if he got caught is demonstrating the ________ level of morality.

A) preconventional
B) postconventional
C) nonconventional
D) conventional

22) Lori says, “I don’t want to lie because I might get a spanking.” According to Kohlberg, which stage of moral development is she in?

A) nonconventional
B) preconventional
C) conventional
D) postconventional

23) Kari says, “I think cleaning your room is a good thing to do because your mother will give you money if you do it.” This type of logic is indicative of Kohlberg’s ________ stage of thinking.

A) punishment and obedience
B) individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange
C) social systems morality
D) community rights versus individual rights

24) Emily is accused of stealing some money to help support the drug habit of her husband, Luke. When asked why she did it, she responds, “A good wife is supposed to take care of her husband.” This answer represents moral thinking at the ________ level.

A) nonconventional
B) conventional
C) preconventional
D) postconventional

25) James tells his brother Dan, “You should always wear your seat belt because it’s against the law not to do so. We should obey the law because it is the right thing to do.” At what stage of moral reasoning is James operating?

A) social systems morality
B) individualism and purpose
C) universal ethical principles
D) community rights versus individual rights

26) Jefferson, who believes in privacy and personal freedom, becomes aware that a children’s book has been banned because it portrays an unwed mother in a positive manner. In response, Jefferson participates in a public protest and purchases several copies of the book for anyone wishing to read the work. At which level of moral reasoning does Jefferson appear to be operating?

A) nonconventional
B) postconventional
C) preconventional
D) conventional

27) What is the highest stage in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

A) social systems morality
B) interpersonal norms
C) universal ethical principles
D) community rights versus individual rights

28) When presented with the Heinz dilemma, Hetal supports Heinz’s theft of the drug, reasoning that by not stealing the drug, he would have lived up to society’s rules but he would have let down his conscience. Hetal is in which stage of moral development?

A) heteronomous morality
B) interpersonal norms
C) universal ethical principles
D) individualism and purpose

29) At which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development is morality completely internalized?

A) social systems morality
B) interpersonal norms
C) universal ethical principles
D) individualism and purpose

30) Roger is transferred to a new job in a foreign country. After his arrival, he learns that his religious beliefs are considered immoral and have been outlawed by the government. His decision to continue to practice his religion, even though it may cost him his life, represents thinking at Kohlberg’s level of

A) interpersonal norms.
B) universal ethical principles.
C) social systems morality.
D) individualism and purpose.

31) Although Kohlberg believed that children’s moral orientation unfolds as a consequence of their ________ development, he argued that advances in this sphere did not ensure development of moral reasoning.

A) social
B) emotional
C) physical
D) cognitive

32) Researchers have found that the most effective way to raise a child’s level of moral reasoning is to

A) praise the child’s current level of thinking.
B) let the child develop without organized intervention.
C) present examples of moral reasoning that are slightly above the child’s current level of functioning.
D) encourage the child to read accounts of famous historical figures known for their high moral standards.

33) Whereas adults characteristically impose rules and regulations on children, the mutual give-and-take in peer interaction provides children with the opportunity to

A) take the perspective of another person.
B) generate rules democratically.
C) both take the perspective of another person and generate rules democratically.
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

34) When it comes to moral development, peer interaction is very important because it

A) encourages children to abandon their moral positions.
B) allows for a give-and-take that gives children an opportunity to take the perspective of another person and to generate rules regarding the reasoning process.
C) both encourages children to abandon their moral positions and allows for a give-and-take that gives them an opportunity to take the perspective of another person and to generate rules regarding the reasoning process.
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

35) Which of the following has been a major criticism of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

A) It relies on out-of-date dilemmas.
B) It fails to clearly distinguish between the ability to reason morally and the ability to behave morally.
C) It overemphasizes cross-cultural studies.
D) It lacks detail about each specific stage.

36) Of the following, whose behavior illustrates one of the major criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

A) Murphy, who is 20 years old, but is still in the middle level of moral reasoning
B) Jim and his identical brother Phil, who operate at different levels of moral reasoning
C) Brent, who in conversation produces highly ethical arguments, but who illegally parked in a handicapped parking spot earlier in the day
D) Miles, whose parents were able to help him learn to reason at higher levels

37) Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for

A) placing too much emphasis on moral thought and moral behavior.
B) placing too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough emphasis on moral behavior.
C) not placing enough emphasis on moral reasoning.
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

38) Cross-cultural researchers have concluded that Kohlberg’s principles of moral reasoning are

A) applicable to both Western and Eastern societies.
B) applicable to both industrialized and nonindustrialized nations.
C) universal.
D) culturally biased.

39) Which of the following is true of cross-cultural research on Kohlberg’s stages?

A) Many Buddhist cultures demonstrate a skip from stage 2 to stage 5.
B) Only European studies have provided support for the universality of Kohlberg’s first four stages.
C) The shift from stage 2 to 3 has not been shown in all cultures.
D) The shift from stage 5 to 6 has not been shown in all cultures.

40) The ________ perspective is the moral perspective that focuses on the rights of the individual.

A) justice
B) care
C) unaware
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

41) The ________ perspective is a moral perspective that views people in terms of their connectedness and interpersonal communication.

A) justice
B) care
C) personal
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

42) Gilligan is to Kohlberg as

A) individual is to interpersonal.
B) Erikson is to Piaget.
C) sexism is to racism.
D) care is to justice.

43) Why did Carol Gilligan believe that Kohlberg’s theory was flawed?

A) because he was male and he used mostly male subjects and male responses
B) because he relied too much on Piaget’s theory
C) because he was too Freudian
D) because he used interview techniques rather than experimental methods

44) In social-cognitive domain theory, personal issues include

A) control over one’s body.
B) privacy.
C) choice of friends and activities.
D) All answer choices are correct.

45) Which of the following processes has been invoked to explain how individuals learn certain responses and why their responses differ from one another?

A) reinforcement
B) punishment
C) imitation
D) All answer choices are correct.

46) Based on the classic investigation of moral behavior undertaken by Hartshorne and May, who would you say is the most likely to cheat?

A) Sean, who is being pressured to do so by a friend
B) Ron, who believes that there is about a 50/50 chance of being caught
C) Tim, who is surrounded by people he doesn’t know
D) Perry, who is highly aggressive

47) What did Freud consider to be the foundation of moral behavior?

A) the fear of punishment
B) the teachings and behaviors of one’s parents
C) guilt and the desire to avoid feeling guilty
D) the desire to be admired by others

48) If you believe that the key to moral development is a child’s ability to resist temptation and to develop self-control, your beliefs most closely resemble those of ________ theorists.

A) social cognitive
B) psychoanalytic
C) behavioral
D) humanistic

49) The ________ theory of morality emphasizes a distinction between a child’s moral competence (the ability to produce moral behaviors) and moral performance (those behaviors in specific situations).

A) social-cognitive
B) psychoanalytical
C) behaviorist
D) eclectic

50) Social cognitive theory makes a distinction between

A) direct and indirect moral education.
B) autonomous and heteronomous morality.
C) moral competence and moral performance.
D) the preconventional and conventional levels of morality.

51) Moral competence is to moral performance as

A) indirect is to direct.
B) capability is to performance in specific situations.
C) feminine is to masculine.
D) autonomous is to heteronomous.

52) The theorist who would be most interested in the difference between a person’s ability to think morally and his or her actual moral behavior is a ________ theorist.

A) behavioral
B) psychoanalytic
C) social cognitive
D) Piagetian

53) Which of the following best reflects Albert Bandura’s conception of moral development?

A) People learn by monitoring other’s conduct, not their own.
B) Social factors are far more important than cognitive ones.
C) The role of self-control is particularly important.
D) Abstract moral reasoning plays a key role.

54) Alex signs up to volunteer at the local food bank, but when the time comes to drive there, he chooses not to do so because he had a particularly crushing day at the office. In terms of moral personality, we could say that Alex lacks

A) empathy.
B) a moral identity.
C) moral exemplars.
D) moral character.

55) While watching a marathon on television, Mandy sees a participant in a wheelchair cross the finish line and thrust his hands up in the air in a demonstration of accomplishment. When this happens, Mandy also experiences a feeling of pleasure and accomplishment. This feeling would best be described as

A) sharing.
B) empathy.
C) universal.
D) preconventional.

56) When Tim sees his daughter Tess finish second in the national spelling bee, he says to himself, “I’ll bet that Tess feels both excited and disappointed.” This indicates that Tim is

A) sharing.
B) a behaviorist.
C) operating at the individualism and purpose stage of moral reasoning.
D) capable of perspective taking.

57) When 10-month-old Ike sees his brother Jerome accidentally let go of his balloon and start to cry, Ike also begins to cry. This behavior indicates that Ike

A) can express global empathy.
B) is gifted.
C) can share.
D) has a conscience.

58) ________ empathy is the young infant’s empathic response in which clear boundaries between the feelings and needs of the self and those of another have not yet been established.

A) Primary
B) Secondary
C) Self-directed
D) Global

59) A company hires you to help lead a school-based fund drive to collect money for “poor people around the world.” At which age would you first expect to see true humanitarian concern for others and an increase in donations?

A) 1 to 2 years of age
B) 3 to 5 years of age
C) 6 to 9 years of age
D) 10 to 12 years of age

60) What do the majority of contemporary developmental psychologists view as the basis for moral behavior in children?

A) instincts
B) past patterns of reinforcement
C) current level of moral reasoning
D) positive and negative feelings

61) Foundational theories emphasize the power of unconscious ________ in moral development, but other theorists, such as Damon, emphasize the role of ________.

A) empathy; guilt
B) guilt; empathy
C) empathy; justification
D) justification; guilt

62) Which is a positive feeling?

A) empathy
B) sympathy
C) admiration
D) All answer choices are correct.

63) Which is NOT a negative feeling?

A) anger
B) outrage
C) guilt
D) self-esteem

64) When a moral notion of conviction is primary in a person’s life, the person is displaying

A) moral exemplars.
B) moral character.
C) a moral identity.
D) a moral commitment.

65) A person who has strong convictions, is persistent, and overcomes distractions and obstacles has

A) moral exemplars.
B) moral character.
C) a moral identity.
D) a moral commitment.

66) When people have lived their life with a set of virtues that reflect moral excellence and commitment they are seen as being moral

A) exemplars.
B) characters.
C) identities.
D) personalities.

67) ________ focuses on conventional rules that have been established by social consensus in order to control behavior and maintain the social system.

A) Social conventional reasoning
B) Basic processes
C) Moral reconvention
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

68) Which statement regarding Piaget and Kohlberg is true?

A) They believe that parents do not provide any unique or essential inputs in children’s moral development.
B) They believe that parents do not provide any role-taking opportunities.
C) They believe that peers play an important role in moral development.
D) They believe both that parents do not provide any unique or essential inputs in children’s moral development and that peers play an important role in moral development.

69) Which does NOT belong?

A) love withdrawal
B) conscience
C) power assertion
D) induction

70) Troy is becoming very frustrated with his son, Gannon, who is running around the room and screaming as loud as he can. In response, Troy says, “One more word and I’m going outside and you must stay inside.” Troy’s actions provide an example of

A) parental induction.
B) power assertion.
C) love withdrawal.
D) ego ideal.

71) After 4-year-old Susie had a temper tantrum in a grocery store, her mother refused to talk to her on the way home. What discipline technique is Susie’s mother using?

A) induction
B) power assertion
C) love withdrawal
D) power reversal

72) When James tells his son Ben, “Since you brought home that terrible report card, there’s no television for one month,” he is using

A) parental induction.
B) power assertion.
C) love withdrawal.
D) power reversal.

73) Which of the following is an example of induction?

A) “Don’t speak unless spoken to.”
B) “If you play with that squirt gun in the house, I will take it away.”
C) “If you keep waving that stick around, you may poke someone’s eye out.”
D) “Good kids don’t act like brats in public.”

74) Which of the following represents social conventional reasoning?

A) ignoring a stop sign
B) choosing not to cheat off a classmate’s paper
C) crossing the street at a crosswalk instead of through traffic
D) taking food to a homeless person

75) Moral children tend to have parents who meet all the following criteria EXCEPT

A) being warm and supportive.
B) believing that young children are not capable of being a part of family decision making.
C) modeling moral behaviors.
D) modeling moral thinking.

76) ________ is conveyed by the moral atmosphere that is a part of every school.

A) Virtuous recognition
B) Teacher recognition
C) Religious education
D) The hidden curriculum

77) ________ was initially involved with the idea of the hidden curriculum over 60 years ago.

A) Sigmund Freud
B) Joseph McDermont
C) John Dewey
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

78) Which would NOT be considered part of the hidden curriculum?

A) the moral atmosphere
B) classroom rules
C) the part of town in which the school is located
D) the orientation of the text materials

79) ________ is/are a direct approach that involves teaching students a basic moral literacy to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior and doing harm to themselves or others.

A) Delinquency prevention
B) The elder curriculum
C) Character education
D) The elder curriculum and character education

80) In the context of moral development, how does Ross Thompson view the role of the child in the child-parent relationship?

A) as independent thinker
B) as a “sponge” for moral learning
C) as a partner in moral education
D) as moral apprentice

81) Which of the following is true of changes in the rates of juvenile delinquency in recent decades?

A) The number of juveniles who committed offenses but were not caught has increased in the past two decades.
B) The percentage of delinquency caseloads involving females increased from 1985 to 2005, but overall cases decreased from 2005 to 2016.
C) Juvenile court delinquency caseloads have increased slightly in the past two decades.
D) The percentage of delinquency caseloads involving females increased slightly in the past two decades.

82) ________ is a concept based on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops.

A) Cognitive-moral education
B) History involvement
C) The hidden curriculum
D) Values clarification

83) What is the core goal of parents’ proactive strategies in the moral development of children?

A) to get children out into the world and show moral behavior by example
B) to educate children about the parents’ core values
C) to prevent misbehavior before it takes place
D) to be quick with correction or punishment after misbehavior

84) ________ is a form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community.

A) Community regard
B) History involvement
C) Service learning
D) Extra assignment

85) The current efforts to get U.S. students involved in service learning activities is being coordinated by the ________ for National and Community Service.

A) Committee
B) Corporation
C) Company
D) Commission

86) Which of the following is NOT a side effect of service learning?

A) Grades and motivation improve for the students involved in service learning.
B) Self-esteem remains static.
C) Students experience increased goal-setting.
D) Students develop a greater sense of social responsibility.

87) A primary form of cheating is

A) plagiarism.
B) copying a neighbor’s test answers.
C) using another’s paper.
D) All answer choices are correct.

88) When Mrs. Simpson uses an integrative approach in her composition class, she is

A) emphasizing reflective moral thinking.
B) demonstrating a commitment to justice.
C) developing moral character.
D) All answer choices are correct.

89) Which of the following is NOT an example of prosocial behavior?

A) caring about the rights and welfare of others
B) feeling concern and empathy
C) acting in a way that others are put second
D) acting in a way that benefits others

90) Altruism is defined as helping someone

A) you do not know.
B) who requested your help.
C) because of an unselfish interest in helping others.
D) after he or she has first helped you.

91) Who is most likely to have just begun to share toys out of a sense of obligation?

A) a 1-year-old
B) a 2-year-old
C) a 3-year-old
D) a 4-year-old

92) Which of the following is related to the definition of fairness?

A) equity
B) merit
C) benevolence
D) All answer choices are correct.

93) Which of the following stimulate(s) sharing?

A) give-and-take of peer requests
B) arguments with peers
C) both the give-and-take of peer requests and arguments
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

94) Juvenile ________ refers to a broad range of behaviors, from socially unacceptable behavior to status offenses.

A) delinquency
B) court
C) tendencies
D) expectations

95) Conduct ________ refer(s) to age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectations, society’s norms, and the personal or property rights of others.

A) disorder
B) reassessment
C) adjustment
D) reassessment and adjustment

96) Conduct problems in children are best explained by a confluence of causes, or risk factors, operating over time. Which of the following is/are NOT an example of the risk factors?

A) genetic influences
B) ineffective parenting
C) living in a middle-class neighborhood
D) living in a violent neighborhood

97) In efforts to help children with conduct problems,

A) getting the child out of an abusive home is of paramount importance.
B) most psychologists advocate a mix of juvenile detention and therapy.
C) effective treatment is difficult and requires addressing multiple factors.
D) solutions can almost always be found by addressing family problems.

98) Which 12-year-old is committing a status offense?

A) Kim, who is skipping school
B) Britta, who is shoplifting
C) Lida, who is stealing a car
D) Raul, who is stabbing someone

99) Of the following, who would be “at risk” for juvenile delinquency?

A) Casey, who has a high level of self-control
B) Brian, who lives in a rural area
C) Helen, who is from a middle-class family
D) Joe, whose antisocial behavior started when he was 7 years old

100) As a parent, Rita does not do a very good job of discouraging antisocial behavior in her daughter. In addition, Rita seldom knows where her daughter is at night. Research has suggested that Rita’s daughter is at risk for

A) androgyny.
B) delinquency.
C) failing to develop global empathy.
D) not achieving the conventional level of moral reasoning.

101) Six-year old Jenny says she wants something to be “fair.” What is she most likely to mean by that?

A) just
B) equal
C) empathetic
D) beneficial to all

102) A cognitive factor implicated in delinquency is

A) low self-control.
B) low intelligence.
C) lowered attention.
D) All answer choices are correct.

103) Most of the positive effects on participants of the Fast Track program appear to be due to

A) intervention to improve parents’ disciplinary skills.
B) intervention to improve parents’ encouragement skills.
C) intervention to improve children’s social skills and self-regulation capabilities.
D) changes made to the type of schooling the children receive.

104) Professionals who intervene to help prevent delinquency work with the

A) child.
B) family.
C) school.
D) All answer choices are correct.

105) Which of the following has research most strongly supported as being linked to delinquent behavior in juveniles?

A) middle-SES
B) lack of family therapy
C) having older siblings
D) having delinquent peers

106) Which of the following is NOT a method society uses to carry on religious traditions?

A) religious schooling
B) expressing feelings of power
C) parochial education
D) parental teaching

107) Jaedyn attends religious services more often than her older and younger siblings. Of the following, what age would Jaedyn most likely be?

A) 12
B) 14
C) 16
D) 18

108) Lorettia indicates religion is very important in her life. Based on relative levels of the popularity of religious practice around the world, which of the following countries would Lorettia most likely reside in?

A) Japan
B) Sweden
C) Nigeria
D) Russia

109) An important developmental stage of religious development is

A) adolescence.
B) emerging adulthood.
C) Both adolescence and emerging adulthood are important.
D) None of the answer choices are correct.

110) A central focus of emerging adulthood is

A) identity.
B) involvement.
C) integrity.
D) isolation.

111) If a person is religious, what quality or behavior might he or she exhibit that would be less likely in a purely spiritual (not religious) person?

A) praying in a nonspecific way
B) attending church
C) being motivated to help others
D) believing in something beyond themselves

112) Research has found that stronger religious views have been associated with

A) higher rates of self-esteem.
B) lower rates of risky behaviors.
C) a lower rate of depressive disorders.
D) All answer choices are correct.

113) Compare and contrast the intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions of moral development.

114) Distinguish between the heteronomous morality of younger children and the autonomous morality of older children, according to Jean Piaget.

115) List and describe the three levels of Lawrence Kohlberg’s moral development.

116) Identify the difference between Kohlberg’s justice perspective and Gilligan’s care perspective.

117) Social cognitive theory emphasizes a distinction between moral competence and moral performance. Elaborate on these two dimensions, and give an example for each.

118) List the three discipline techniques of parenting identified by Hoffman (1988). Give one example for each.

119) List four of the seven characteristics of parents who raise children that display moral behavior.

120) The hidden curriculum in schools is an approach to teaching moral development. What are the pros and cons of this approach?

121) Compare and contrast forgiveness and gratitude.

122) List five things that contribute to conduct problems in children.

123) Describe the difference between an index offense and a status offense.

124) Identify four items by which religiousness was assessed in the longitudinal study of 14- to 20-year-olds described in the text.

125) Based on Piaget’s theory, list the three factors that influence adolescents’ changes or choices in their religious thinking.