Chapter 3: Theories Part II: Critical, Labeling, Cycle of Violence, Life Course, Pathways, and Masculinity Theories

Test Bank

Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following theories is considered to be more consistent with feminist approaches, even if they have not always been applied so?

A. social learning

B. general strain

C. social control

D. pathways

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Introduction

Difficulty Level: Hard

2. When addressing girls’ and women’s agency, feminists often struggle with balancing sexism and ______.

A. misogyny

B. racism

C. misandry

D. patriarchy

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Agency and Resiliency

Difficulty Level: Medium

3. Which term is used to describe women’s self-determination?

A. adaptation

B. achievement

C. agency

D. authority

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Agency and Resiliency

Difficulty Level: Easy

4. In her study of crack-addicted women, Sterk (1999) captured the dichotomy of ______.

A. agency

B. adaptation

C. achievement

D. authority

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Agency and Resiliency

Difficulty Level: Easy

5. What theory is grounded in Marxism and often referred to as Marxist theory and radical theory?

A. labeling theory

B. pathways theory

C. masculinity theory

D. conflict theory

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Critical Criminology Theory (CCT)

Difficulty Level: Easy

6. The basis for conflict theory was drawn from the works of which theorist?

A. Karl Marx

B. John Locke

C. Thomas Hobbes

D. Max Weber

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Critical Criminology Theory (CCT)

Difficulty Level: Easy

7. ______ typically embraces a more structural, political, and economical perspective.

A. Biosocial theory

B. Conflict theory

C. Differential association theory

D. Strain theory

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Critical Criminology Theory (CCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

8. Conflict theory proposes that we focus on ______.

A. offenders

B. victims

C. crimes

D. lawmakers

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Critical Criminology Theory (CCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

9. That laws are biased, reflecting the needs of the upper class, and thus enforcement of the laws is inevitably unjust is an assumption of which of the following theories?

A. labeling theory

B. pathways theory

C. conflict theory

D. masculinity theory

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Critical Criminology Theory (CCT)

Difficulty Level: Hard

10. According to critical theories, the key to solving the crime problem is changing the ______ system.

A. political

B. economic

C. educational

D. justice

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Critical Criminology Theory (CCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

11. “New criminologists” viewed ______ as the real criminals.

A. capitalists

B. resistors

C. offenders

D. lower-class men

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Critical Criminology Theory (CCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

12. A common criticism of the “new criminology” is that it was ______.

A. convoluted

B. generalizing

C. multifaceted

D. complex

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Critical Criminology Theory (CCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

13. The progressive legal movement to transform the relationship among race, racism, and power is referred to as ______.

A. life course theory

B. labeling theory

C. critical race theory

D. pathways theory

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Difficulty Level: Easy

14. Which of the following beliefs accepted by mainstream society as myths was identified by critical race theory?

A. Ignoring race exacerbates racism.

B. Racism is caused by systems, not individuals.

C. Racism can be fought alone.

D. Recognizing sexism, classism, and homophobia is critical.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Difficulty Level: Hard

15. The assumption/problem that race is completely embedded in U.S. laws and policies is central to which theory?

A. masculinity theory

B. critical race theory

C. life course theory

D. labeling theory

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

16. The originators of critical race theory believed that White privilege and ______ are core to understanding racism in the systematic discrimination and civil rights violations of people of color.

A. power

B. community

C. accountability

D. cooperation

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

17. Which approach would you use if you wanted to address the ways that lawmaking and enforcement work to the detriment of women and girls?

A. critical legal studies

B. feminist pathways

C. critical race theory

D. feminist jurisprudence

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Critical Race Feminist Theory (CRFT)

Difficulty Level: Hard

18. Critical race theory (CRT) emerged as a response to the view that critical legal studies were limited because it was framed by ______.

A. elites

B. minorities

C. female

D. right-wing academics

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Critical Race Feminist Theory (CRFT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

19. Designers of critical race theory criticized critical legal theories for using which type of lens?

A. intersectional

B. gendered

C. White

D. equal

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Critical Race Feminist Theory (CRFT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

20. Which theorist argued that assigning criminal labels to people increases the chances that they will become their labels?

A. Sigmund Freud

B. Frank Tannenbaum

C. Cesare Lombroso

D. Max Weber

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Labeling Theory (LT)

Difficulty Level: Easy

21. Which of the following is an example of a label that may make offending worse?

A. offender

B. juvenile

C. minority

D. outsider

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Labeling Theory (LT)

Difficulty Level: Hard

22. If a scholar were to speculate about how people are “marked” as deviant, delinquent, or criminal, they are likely working with which theory?

A. pathways theory

B. critical race theory

C. labeling theory

D. life course theory

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Labeling Theory (LT)

Difficulty Level: Hard

23. Collected data that are consistent with life course theory are considered to be ______.

A. prospective

B. retrospective

C. concurrent

D. consecutive

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Developmental and Adverse Life Events Theories

Difficulty Level: Medium

24. Research that asks individuals about their past experiences at one point in time is referred to as ______.

A. prospective

B. retrospective

C. concurrent

D. consecutive

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Developmental and Adverse Life Events Theories

Difficulty Level: Easy

25. Which theory was developed in 1989 to assess the relationship between childhood traumas and subsequent offending?

A. pathways theory

B. life course theory

C. cycle of violence theory

D. labeling theory

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Cycle of Violence Theory (CVT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

26. Which of the following theorizes that various life events, particularly those during childhood and adolescence, affect one’s risk of offending behavior?

A. pathways theory

B. life course theory

C. cycle of violence theory

D. labeling theory

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Life Course Theory (LCT)

Difficulty Level: Hard

27. According to the life course theory, which developmental stage is considered to be a particularly “at risk” time?

A. infancy

B. childhood

C. adolescence

D. adulthood

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Life Course Theory (LCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

28. What approach would a scholar use to examine pathways through the age-differentiated life span?

A. life course theory

B. cycle of violence theory

C. labeling theory

D. masculinity theory

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Life Course Theory (LCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

29. Which theory is considered to be a developmental perspective that focuses on individuals’ behavioral changes from birth until death?

A. labeling theory

B. life course theory

C. critical race theory

D. cycle of violence theory

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Life Course Theory (LCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

30. Which of the following is an example of a transition?

A. marriage

B. parenthood

C. criminal behavior

D. first job

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Life Course Theory (LCT)

Difficulty Level: Hard

31. Specific life events that are embedded in trajectories and evolve over shorter time spans are referred to as ______.

A. transitions

B. trajectories

C. pathways

D. courses

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Life Course Theory (LCT)

Difficulty Level: Easy

32. In their research, Sampson and Laub hypothesized that social bonds to both ______ in adulthood explain changes in crime and development over the life span.

A. peers and school

B. school and work

C. work and family

D. family and religion

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Life Course Theory (LCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

33. Trajectories and transitions are considered to be central concepts of which of the following theories?

A. pathways theory

B. life course theory

C. labeling theory

D. cycle of violence theory

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Life Course Theory (LCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

34. Life course theory is comparable to ______ theory in that it rarely includes maltreatment and other trauma variables.

A. pathways

B. labeling theory

C. anomie theory

D. general strain theory

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: The Focus on Boys and Young Men

Difficulty Level: Medium

35. As an age and developmental theory, ______ stresses the significance of the highest offending levels likely to be in adolescence and possibly into the 20s.

A. labeling theory

B. masculinity theory

C. life course theory

D. cycle of violence theory

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Expanding LCT to Girls and Women, Gender Comparisons, and Intimate Relationship Effects

Difficulty Level: Medium

36. The ______ effect is an example of a significant desistance factor for offending.

A. relationship

B. parenthood

C. adulthood

D. marriage

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Expanding LCT to Girls and Women, Gender Comparisons, and Intimate Relationship Effects

Difficulty Level: Hard

37. The marriage effect was historically tested solely on ______.

A. elites

B. men

C. same-sex couples

D. Whites

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Expanding LCT to Girls and Women, Gender Comparisons, and Intimate Relationship Effects

Difficulty Level: Easy

38. Which of the following trajectory classifications is considered to be the least susceptible to peer pressure?

A. persistent de-escalators

B. persisters

C. de-escalators

D. chronic fluctuators

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Advancing LCT

Difficulty Level: Medium

39. Which of the following statements pertaining to de-escalators is true?

A. They have the lowest number of delinquent peers.

B. They are less likely to be married.

C. They have a history of high drug/alcohol use.

D. They are more likely to be White.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Advancing LCT

Difficulty Level: Hard

40. Out of the four trajectory classifications used by Elaine Gunnison (2015), which of the following is considered to be the only female-dominated group?

A. persistent de-escalators

B. persisters

C. de-escalators

D. chronic fluctuators

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Advancing LCT

Difficulty Level: Medium

41. Which theory posits that adverse life events including trauma can serve as trajectories to offending, and these adverse events may be in childhood and/or adulthood?

A. cycle of violence theory

B. general strain theory

C. life course theory

D. pathways theory

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Pathways Theory (PT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

42. The traumas included in pathways are most similar to which other theory?

A. general strain

B. labeling

C. life course

D. cycle of violence

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Pathways Theory (PT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

43. Which of the following categories refers to women who acted out from childhood abuse and neglect, were then labeled “problem children,” developed alcohol problems, and then harmed others because they were angry from being “done wrong?”

A. street women

B. harmed and harming women

C. battered women

D. drug-connected women

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Studies Consistent With PT That Preceded the Naming of PT

Difficulty Level: Medium

44. According to Daly’s (1992) study, women who were in or just out of an intimate relationship with a very violent man and ended up in court for hurting or killing the man are categorized as ______.

A. street women

B. harmed and harming women

C. battered women

D. drug-connected women

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Studies Consistent With PT That Preceded the Naming of PT

Difficulty Level: Medium

45. According to Daly (1992), women who have no or limited chemical dependency or abusive partner histories and their crimes were economically motivated are categorized as ______.

A. street women

B. harmed and harming women

C. other women

D. drug-connected women

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Studies Consistent With PT That Preceded the Naming of PT

Difficulty Level: Medium

46. Which types of women tend to have the least extensive criminal records?

A. battered and drug-connected women

B. harmed and harming and drug-connected women

C. street and other women

D. other and battered women

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Studies Consistent With PT That Preceded the Naming of PT

Difficulty Level: Medium

47. Which theory was developed to understand the “contradictions and complications of the lives of the African American battered women who commit crimes?”

A. life course theory

B. women’s liberation/hypothesis theory

C. gender entrapment theory

D. cycle of violent theory

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Studies Consistent With PT That Preceded the Naming of PT

Difficulty Level: Medium

48. The application of critical race feminist theory to the construction of male norms in society is referred to as ______.

A. feminist jurisprudence

B. critical race masculism

C. pathways

D. general strain

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Masculinity Theory (MT)

Difficulty Level: Easy

49. According to the text, who was more likely to criticize critical legal studies?

A. women of color

B. White men

C. elites

D. rightist academics

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Summary

Difficulty Level: Easy

50. Which of the following theories was identified as being more useful in the applications to criminology research than the Marxist and critical control theories?

A. critical race theory

B. cycle of violence theory

C. positivist theory

D. pathways theory

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Summary

Difficulty Level: Hard

True/False

1. It is inconsistent with feminism to portray girls/women as having no agency or resiliency.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Agency and Resiliency

Difficulty Level: Medium

2. According to critical theories, the key to solving the crime problem is changing the economic system.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Critical Criminology Theory (CCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

3. Critical criminology (CCT) theories typically embrace a more structural, political, and economical perspective than the classical positivist theories.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Critical Criminology Theory (CCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

4. Critical legal studies emerged from a radical group of predominantly minority legal academics.

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Difficulty Level: Easy

5. Critical race theory is defined as the progressive legal movement to transform the relationship among race, racism, and power.

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Difficulty Level: Easy

6. Labeling theory (LT) is concerned with the process by which deviant labels are one only applied.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Labeling Theory (LT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

7. According to labeling theory (LT), some people are more likely to be labeled because of their race, sex, class, and so on.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Labeling Theory (LT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

8. Pathways theory research is considered to be prospective, rather than retrospective.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Developmental and Adverse Life Events Theories

Difficulty Level: Medium

9. The construction of life course theory (LCT) drew significantly from social control theory, general theory of crime, and self-control theory.

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Life Course Theory (LCT)

Difficulty Level: Easy

10. The focus of some pathways research is whether behavior is life course persistent or adolescence limited.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Life Course Theory (LCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

11. Life course theory (LCT) is considered to be a developmental perspective.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Life Course Theory (LCT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

12. Chronic fluctuators are more likely to be single and White.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Advancing LCT

Difficulty Level: Medium

13. The tenets of pathways theory overlap with many of the tenets from other theories, such as life course, cycle of violence, general strain, and social learning.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Advancing LCT

Difficulty Level: Medium

14. The traumas included in pathways are more similar to cycle of violence theory, because they primarily focus on child abuse victimization.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Pathways Theory (PT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

15. According to research, battered women and drug-connected women tend to have the most amounts of criminal records.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Studies Consistent With PT That Preceded the Naming of PT

Difficulty Level: Medium

16. Gender entrapment was developed to understand the contradictions and complications of the lives of the African American battered women who commit crimes.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Studies Consistent With PT That Preceded the Naming of PT

Difficulty Level: Medium

17. Masculinity theory holds important potential for addressing the gendered aspects of “fear of crime.”

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Masculinity Theory (MT)

Difficulty Level: Medium

18. Critical race masculism is defined as the application of critical legal studies to the construction of male norms in the society.

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Masculinity Theory (MT)

Difficulty Level: Easy

19. Critical legal studies was dominated by White elite men and criticized by women and people of color in leftist academia who became frustrated with its limited views.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Summary

Difficulty Level: Medium

20. Critical race theory has been more useful in applications to criminology research than the Marxist theories.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Summary

Difficulty Level: Medium

Essay

1. What are the two tenets of labeling theory (LT)?

2. Explain the difference between prospective and retrospective research. Provide some examples of theories that utilize both prospective and retrospective research.

3. Discuss pathways theory. Are the traumas associated with pathways similar to those in other theories? If so, which ones?

4. Why was gender entrapment theory developed and what does it involve?

5. Identify and explain each of the five categories of offending women.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Studies Consistent With PT That preceded the Naming of PT

Difficulty Level: Medium