CHAPTER 8

Personality and Patterns of Coping

Lecture guidelines

The topic of personality is naturally an engaging one, and given the breadth of the chapter, there is much to choose from when you present the main topics. Identity theory, and the identity status model, is one that students can relate to from their own lives. The five pathways in the RALS model, likewise, offer ideas that students can apply from their own experiences. The trait model is one that students most likely have encountered, and they will be interested in concrete examples of each of the five major traits. Health psychology, and the “Type’s” of behavior patterns (A,B,C and D) also constitute highly relevant ideas, particularly from the biopsychosocial perspective. The debunking of the midlife crisis myth can occupy a considerable portion of class discussion and challenges students to look critically at research.

Videos and Films

Given that personality is such a broad topic, there are many possible videos that can highlight and illustrate the chapter material. One entertaining video was produced by the BBC in “Child of our time” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7OuuvICk89Q). Another segment can be used from “56 Up” or “63 Up” (produced in 2019; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ugw7hUoJ0C0) to illustrate personality change vs. stability and the role of social class, or if you did not show Neil’s segment earlier in the semester it would also be appropriate here. A scene from the original “Mamma Mia” (“Here I Go Again”) provides an illustration of midlife issues as Meryl Streep addresses her past.

Discussion questions

Psychodynamic perspective

Do you agree with Freud that personality is fixed by the age of 5?

What do you think of Freud's statement that the goal of development is "to love and to work"? What does that mean in today's terms?

Why is Erikson's theory in the category of "ego psychology" theories?

Can you think of a time you used a mature defense mechanism? Can you think of a time you used an immature defense mechanism?

Do you think people's personalities become more "mature" as they get older?

What is meant by the “quiet ego,” and do you think that people actually do develop one as they get older?

What type of attachment style do you think you have?

Which adult pathway do you believe that you are on? How about your parents or other family members?

Trait approaches

How would you describe your best friend? How would your best friend describe you?

Why do you think people use trait terms when defining the personality of people they know?

Can you think of traits other than the five in the Five Factor Model that should be included?

Can you think of cases where people changed their personalities?

Is it depressing to think that personality might be fixed so early in adulthood? What would you like to change about yourself and do you think you'll be able to do so?

Social cognitive approaches

In your opinion, does socioemotional selectivity theory predict that older adults have fewer close relationships or that the nature of their relationships changes? Defend your answer.

Cognitive perspective

Do you agree that views of the self are important in understanding personality? Why or why not?

How might views of the self change as people develop through adulthood?

How might people's ideas about what they will be like in the future influence their present behavior?

What are your possible selves? How do they influence the decisions you make now?

Which method of reacting to obstacles characterizes your approach to life- do you try to change the environment or do you change your goals?

Midlife crisis theories and findings

Do you agree that there is a midlife crisis? Have you observed it in people you know?

Why do you think the concept of a midlife crisis was proposed? How does it fit with other theories of personality development in adulthood?

Why is the concept of midlife crisis still so popular despite lack of evidence to support it?

Who is most likely to experience a midlife crisis?

Do you agree that the concept is popular because it makes a "good story"?

Could a midlife crisis be used as an excuse by someone seeking a way out of an unhappy life situation?

Do you think the midlife crisis concept would have originated if Levinson had used a more diverse sample in his study?

Multiple choice questions

AgeFeed

Myths vs. facts

Which of the following is a myth vs. a fact about personality and aging?

1. Being in love can help reduce neuroticism.
2. Aging brings fewer social responsibilities allowing people to do more of what they want.
3. Pessimists report a higher quality of life because they’re less likely to be disappointed.
4. People become nicer as they get older.

Myths vs. facts

Which of the following is a fact vs. a myth about personality and aging?

1. Younger adults are better than older adults at controlling their negative emotions.
2. Personality traits can predict health in older adults.
3. Almost everyone experiences a midlife crisis.
4. Personality is set in stone and does not change with age.

Psychodynamic perspective

Ego psychology

The idea that the ego plays a central role in behavior is most closely associated with which theoretical perspective in personality psychology?

1. psychodynamic
2. cognitive
3. possible selves
4. trait

Foreclosure identity status

In the identity status model, emerging adults who are low in exploration but high in commitment to important life areas would be in which identity status?

1. Moratorium
2. Foreclosure
3. Achieved
4. Diffuse

Achieved

A 22-year-old college graduate enters a Master’s program in social work after having considered several possible majors, ranging from biology to classics. This graduate would be considered to fit into which identity status?

1. Moratorium
2. Foreclosure
3. Achieved
4. Diffuse

Generativity

Erikson proposed that the key psychosocial of midlife involves the ability to achieve a sense of:

1. industry.
2. initiative.
3. autonomy.
4. generativity.

Generativity

The sense of generativity, according to Erikson, can be developed in midlife through:

1. identifying with work.
2. enjoying travel and leisure.
3. mentoring other people.
4. becoming involved in politics.

Legacy

Associated with generativity may be the desire to secure a(n)____________, in which you feel you are contributing to society as a whole.

1. epitaph
2. legacy
3. pathway
4. identity

Redemption

The idea of achieving “redemption,” according to personality psychologists, is most closely associated with which of Erikson’s stages?

1. intimacy
2. identity
3. generativity
4. autonomy

Straight and narrow

You’ve known one of the closest friends of your parents for almost your entire life, and for that entire time has worked for the same company, lived in the same house, and even travelled to the same vacation spot every summer. You feel that this highly predictable and stable person most closely fits the _____________ pathway, as described in the RALS.

1. triumphant trail
2. authentic road
3. straight and narrow
4. meandering way

Meandering way

People who do not settle on a consistent course in life, constantly searching for identity, would fit into which of the five pathways identified in the RALS?

1. authentic road
2. downward slope
3. straight and narrow
4. meandering way

Authentic road

Which of the five pathways identified in the RALS comes closest to the identity achieved status?

1. authentic road
2. downward slope
3. triumphant trail
4. meandering way

Mills College study

The Mills College study of development, begun by Helson in the 1950s, showed the importance of midlife of feeling a sense of ________ in life.

1. attachment
2. purpose
3. loyalty
4. satisfaction

Acting out

A 66-year-old man is a huge fan of his local university’s football team. He attends every game, spending several hours tailgating before the game actually begins. When his team wins, he’s elated, but when they lose, he cannot control his anger, sometimes going so far as to go outside and throwing rocks into the yard. His reaction to defeat, in Vaillant’s terms, would be consistent with which defense mechanism?

1. passive aggression
2. sublimation
3. displacement
4. acting out

Displacement

In Vaillant’s approach to defense mechanisms, which of the following is considered intermediate between immature and mature?

1. projection
2. denial
3. displacement
4. suppression

Displacement

Which of the following examples would fit into the category of displacement, according to Vaillant’s theory of defense mechanisms?

1. laughing at yourself for mistakenly leaving your cellphone at home
2. becoming enraged at a customer service agent after you’ve had a terrible day at work
3. feeling sorry for a friend whose grandmother died suddenly after a stroke
4. telling your romantic partner that you are worried he or she is cheating on you

Altruism

In the defense mechanism of ____________, you take great pleasure in being able to help people without expecting favors in return.

1. displacement
2. reaction formation
3. altruism
4. acting out

Secure attachment

People who are securely attached in adulthood show which behaviors toward people who are close to them?

1. enjoy being with them but are able to withstand separation
2. worry that their partners are going to leave them for someone else
3. prefer to maintain their independence to avoid being abandoned
4. feel happiest only when they actually in their presence.

Attachment and trust

The concept of attachment style is closes to which of Erikson’s psychosocial stages?

1. initiative vs. guilt
2. trust vs. mistrust
3. intimacy vs. isolation
4. ego integrity vs. despair

Attachment style safe havens

In attachment style terms, older adults may feel comforted by their pets, who provide them with a:

1. sense of identity.
2. displacement object.
3. safe haven.
4. possible self.

Trait approaches

Agreeableness

Which factor in the Five Factor Model reflects the extent to which a person is cooperative and helpful?

1. Agreeableness.
2. Extraversion.
3. Conscientiousness.
4. Openness to experience.

Social vitality

Research based on the personality trait model shows that, of the following, which trait is low and remains low over adulthood?

1. openness to experience
2. social vitality
3. emotional stability
4. social dominance

Correspondence principle

According to the correspondence principle, a person high in openness to experience would be more likely to seek out opportunities involving:

1. potential to achieve.
2. socializing with others.
3. the arts and travel.
4. regular and predictable demands.

Type D personality

People with a Type __ personality have high levels of anxiety, loneliness, and depression but try to suppress those feelings.

1. D
2. B
3. C
4. A

Agreeableness and heart health

The personality trait of _____________ appears to play a beneficial role in promoting heart health.

1. openness to experience
2. emotional sensitivity
3. agreeableness
4. extraversion

Social inhibition and Type D

The quality of ____________ appears to place people with Type D personalities at high risk.

openness to experience

hostility

social inhibition

correspondence

Conscientiousness and health

People higher in conscientiousness may experience health benefits due to lower levels of which stress-related hormone?

1. insulin
2. cortisol
3. prolactin
4. thyroxine

Conscientiousness and health

Some of the health-related effects of high conscientiousness, as shown in a large meta-analysis, include a lower tendency to engage in which health-related behavior?

1. dietary control
2. drug use
3. exercise
4. smoking

Social cognitive approaches

Socioemotional selectivity theory

According to socioemotional selectivity theory, people who are reaching the end of time together with each other are more likely to emphasize which aspect of their relationship?

1. Positive emotional bonds.
2. Ability to provide practical help.
3. Exchange of information.
4. Knowledge of travel tips.

Socioemotional selectivity theory

As pointed out in socioemotional selectivity theory, people who value the _________ function of their relationships want to seek advice and practical tips from the people with whom they spend time.

1. affective
2. informational
3. coping
4. attachment

Socioemotional selectivity theory

In Socioemotional Selectivity Theory, the idea that older adults, or people thinking about a limited future, show a ___________ in memory.

1. personal bias
2. positivity effect
3. problem-focused
4. neutrality preference

Socioemotional selectivity theory

According to which theory of development do people become more focused on emotional aspects of relationships as they get older?

1. normative influence
2. secure attachment
3. socioemotional selectivity
4. life structure

Personality and cognition

The personality traits of neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, and conscientiousness were reported, in a large study across 10 cohorts, to be related to which aspect of cognition?

1. working memory
2. problem solving
3. verbal fluency
4. wisdom

Cognitive perspective

Possible selves theory

Possible selves theory proposes that people thinking about the future try to avoid their __________ future self.

1. feared
2. impossible
3. emotion-focused
4. uncontrolled

Emotion-focused coping

People who use emotion-focused coping are most likely to try to change ___________ when they have to deal with a life stress.

1. the situation
2. their mood
3. other people
4. the environment

Resilience

The quality of ____________ describes individuals who are characteristically able to cope with challenging life situations.

1. identity balance
2. possible selves
3. resilience
4. social support

Cross-national differences in identity processes

In a study comparing Dutch and U.S. older adults in identity processes, Americans were more likely to use identity assimilation in relation to which aspect of their sense of self?

1. intelligence
2. age
3. attractiveness
4. life structure

Identity balance

Identity process theory proposes that, ideally, people maintain their sense of self through which process?

1. emotion-focused coping
2. hoped-for future selves
3. a positivity bias
4. seeking balance

Midlife crisis theory and findings

Midlife transition (Levinson)

According to Levinson, the period in between early and middle adulthood is known as the:

1. emergent self
2. correspondence period
3. midlife transition
4. downward slope

Life structure

What term did Levinson use to describe the pattern of an individual’s total situation at one point in time?

1. five-factor model
2. socioemotional passage
3. possible self
4. life structure

Midlife crisis term

The first use of the term “midlife crisis” can be traced to which psychoanalyst?

1. Levinson
2. Sheehy
3. Jaques
4. Freud

Midlife crisis theme

A theme of the midlife crisis, according to Levinson, is a man’s sense of:

1. hopefulness
2. excitement
3. disillusionment
4. conscientiousness

Midlife crisis survey

A survey of U.S. adults testing the midlife crisis found that _____% of adults tested reported they had experienced this period in their lives.

1. 83
2. 12
3. 51
4. 26

Midlife crisis as story

Researchers on midlife believe the idea of a crisis is so popular because it:

1. makes a good story.
2. is empirically supported.
3. is universally experienced
4. was based on women.

Midlife crisis findings and neuroticism

Findings from the Veteran Affairs Normative Aging Study showed that men with high scores on a midlife crisis scale had, when they were younger, also had high scores on which personality trait?

1. agreeableness
2. openness to experience
3. neuroticism
4. conscientiousness

U-Shaped curve

According to economists, the shape of happiness in adulthood follows which basic pattern?

1. steady increase
2. decline then increase
3. steady decrease
4. increase then decline

U-Shaped curve critique

The finding that happiness shows a U-shaped pattern in adulthood, according to critics, fails to take into account which important factor?

1. gender
2. intelligence
3. health
4. optimism

U-Shaped curve critique

Research on global patterns of happiness show that which types of countries are most likely to show the “U-shaped” effect?

1. low income
2. southern hemisphere
3. island nations
4. high income

Age and happiness

To obtain data on age and happiness, economists used which type of measure?

1. single rating scale
2. in-depth interview
3. focus group
4. clinical interview

Short answer questions

Psychodynamic perspective

1. Compare the major attachment styles in their approach to relationships.
2. Contrast the mature with the immature defense mechanisms in Vaillant's theory.
3. Summarize the major findings from the Rochester Study.
4. What are the four identity statuses and how do they differ?
5. What are the four ways in which adults express generativity?

Trait approaches

1. Summarize the five factors in the Five Factor Model.
2. Describe the pattern of changes in six personality factors studied in longitudinal research.

Social cognitive approaches

1. How does socioemotional selectivity theory account for changes in later adulthood in emotions?
2. What effect does a shortening of time perspective have on an individual’s relationships with others?

Cognitive perspective

1. What are the two main forms of coping?
2. Define and contrast identity assimilation and identity accommodation. Which process is more adaptive in terms of self-esteem in later life?

Midlife crisis theory and findings

1. Summarize the major stages of Levinson's theory.
2. What are three major criticisms of midlife crisis theory?
3. What type of evidence was provided by Levinson in support of the midlife crisis theory?

Essay questions

1. What personal observations in your life have you made about the validity of the midlife crisis concept? How do these observations fit with the theories and research on this topic in the adult development literature?
2. How do changes in physical functioning and health relate to personality changes in adulthood as described by the theories and research in this chapter?
3. Do you agree with the correspondence principle? Why or why not?
4. What recommendations would you give to an older adult who seems to be “Type A” to help protect this individual from negative health consequences?