CHAPTER 7

Language, Problem-Solving, and Intelligence

Lecture guidelines

This chapter has a great deal of material that can be readily brought to light by involving students in hands-on activities. There is also the potential to involve non-traditional students in discussions of adult learners. It is also possible to have some fun with this chapter in the section on everyday problem-solving, particularly with respect to poorly-defined problems such as the one illustrated in the slides.

Another area that has great potential for expansion is the section on the Communication Predicament and "elderspeak." The infantilizing speech directed toward older adults is a phenomenon that can be observed in many service settings. Students involved in service learning can be involved in seeking out their own examples of this type of situation. Such experiences can touch off discussions of why infantilization occurs and what effects it may have on older adults. You can also ask students how they feel when others infantilize them!

Videos and films

The Trolley Problem is a well-known ethical dilemma that illustrates post-formal thinking involving dialectical reasoning. The NBC television show, “The Good Place,” included a humorous re-enactment that students may have already seen; it is now available On Demand. “Life Lessons” from 100-year-olds (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9AThycGCakk) is a good illustration of wisdom.

Discussion questions

Executive functioning and its measurement

What are the best ways to preserve an older adult’s executive functioning?

Do measures of executive functioning seem relevant to everyday activities?

Have videogames affected your ability to monitor your responses?

Language

How is language important in your everyday life?

What does language signify about a person's cognitive abilities?

How might memory changes affect a person's ability to use language?

Why might experience enrich a person's language abilities?

Have you noticed the tendency for older persons to talk about their past experiences? How does talking about past experiences with your friends make you feel?

When have you seen older people spoken to with elderspeak? How do you think this makes them feel?

Everyday problem solving

What problems have you had to solve in the last 24 hours? What types of processes did you use?

Do you think that life has gotten more complex with advances in technology? How might such changes particularly affect older adults?

What factors make it hard or easy for you to solve problems?

How do you feel when you have successfully solved a problem?

Can you think of an example you were affected by the “attraction effect”?

What factors make it more likely that you will take your time to solve a problem rather than rush to a solution?

How the does faster problem solving of older adults fit in with the slower reaction times that they show in other tasks?

Can you think of a case when you used post-formal operations in dealing with a problem?

Why might adults be more likely to engage in post-formal than formal operations? What features of adult life lend themselves to post-formal operations?

What leads adults to use dialectical thinking? What might the advantages be compared to the seeking of a "right answer"?

How might personality relate to the ability to use dialectical reasoning?

Intelligence

Do you feel that you are an "intelligent" person? Why or why not?

What is the practical value of being able to define and measure intelligence?

Why is it of interest to study intelligence developmentally?

Are definitions of intelligence overly narrow in focusing on academic skills?

Why do you think that alternative theories of intelligence were proposed? Do they provide a more realistic approach to intelligence than those based on more traditional intelligence theories?

Do you think that the findings from the SLS are encouraging or discouraging with regard to age changes in intelligence?

Why would people who are more flexible and open in their personality have higher intelligence test scores in later adulthood?

How do the findings from the SLS relate to the concept of dialectical thinking and post-formal operations?

What are the implications of training studies for the findings of studies more generally on intelligence and aging?

Multiple choice questions

AgeFeed

Good problem solvers

According to AgeFeed, which of the following is characteristic of a good problem-solver?

1. Avoid thinking about worst-case scenarios
2. View problems like learning opportunities
3. Don’t listen to feedback from other people.
4. Rely more on intuition than facts.

Poor problem solvers

According to AgeFeed, which of the following is characteristic of a poor problem-solver?

1. Avoid thinking about worst-case scenarios
2. View problems like learning opportunities
3. Have backup plans if the first try fails.
4. Rely more on facts than intuition.

Executive functioning and its measurement

Executive functioning daily life

An older adult experiencing changes in executive functioning would be affected in which type of everyday task?

1. Remembering a new person’s name.
2. Finding a lost item in a drawer.
3. Planning the steps needed to prepare a meal.
4. Washing a stain out of a cotton shirt.

Trail-Making Test

A frequently-used neuropsychological test to evaluate executive functioning, the ____________ involves having the individual connect letters and numbers in sequence.

1. Trail-Making Test
2. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
3. Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test
4. Primary Mental Abilities Test

Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test

A frequently-used neuropsychological test to evaluate executive functioning, the ____________ involves having the individual categorize stimuli according to continuously changing rules.

1. Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test
2. Trail-Making Test
3. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
4. Primary Mental Abilities Test

Perseveration

The tendency to engage in _______________ would show up in neuropsychological testing of an older adult in as repeating the same words on tests of verbal fluency when asked to produce words that all begin with the same letter.

1. task-switching
2. assimilation
3. perseveration
4. inhibition

Perseveration

In a word fluency task, an older adult showing signs of perseveration would give which response to the instruction to “think of as many words as you can that end in “G”?

1. Driving, walking, running, jumping.
2. Pig, dog, cat, rug.
3. Giving, getting, giving, giving.
4. Goat, giraffe, gazelle, gopher.

Verbal fluency

A neuropsychologist is called in to consult on a patient referred to testing by family members, who note that the patient seems to repeat the same words in a sentence over and over again. Which would be an appropriate test for the neuropsychologist to consider administering?

1. card sorting
2. similarities
3. verbal fluency
4. trail-making

Exergaming

In the form of cognitive intervention known as ___________, an older adult plays videogames while working out on a stationary cycle.

1. causal gaming
2. matrix planning
3. exergaming
4. executive training

Language

Aging and language scorecard

The language skills of older adults appear to be significantly affected in a negative way by what age-related change?

1. poorer vocabulary
2. slower reading speed
3. difficulty grasping concepts
4. problems interpreting gestures

Elderspeak

Elderspeak is an obvious way to determine whether an older adult is being subjected to which process?

1. dialectics
2. infantilization
3. testing the limits
4. pragmatization

Communication Predicament Model

The Communication Predicament Model is most closely associated with which specific feature of language directed toward older adults?

1. simplification
2. elderspeak
3. perseveration
4. enunciation

Communication Predicament Model

The ___________ Predicament Model proposes that older adults can develop cognitive declines when treated as if they are children.

1. Interpersonal
2. Communication
3. Complication
4. Paralinguisic

CRUNCH and language

The CRUNCH model of aging and neuroplasticity helps to explain which feature of aging and language ability?

1. relying more on gestures
2. learning new vocabulary words
3. activating more neural circuits
4. becoming more bilingual

Written language

In written language, age-related changes in cognition make it more difficult for older adults to:

1. detecting misspelled words
2. recognize complex sentences
3. remember familiar words
4. correct spelling errors

Bilingualism

Bilingual older adults appear to have greater difficulty than monolinguals in which type of cognitive task?

1. Stroop interference
2. matrix reasoning
3. working memory
4. visual puzzles

Everyday problem solving

Problem solving

Lining up all the colors in a Rubik’s Cube so that each side has a single color represents which stage of problem solving?

1. assessing the situation
2. deciding on the desired end state
3. steps in transformation
4. reaching the end state

Top-down problem-solving

In ______-_______ problem solving, you turn the overall problem into main components and then decide on what sub-problems to tackle first.

1. bottom-up
2. middle-out
3. top-down
4. upside-down

Bottom-up problem solving

In ______-_______ problem solving, you start with the sub-problems, then work on the main components, and finally solve the overall problem.

1. bottom-up
2. middle-out
3. top-down
4. upside-down

Poorly defined problem

An older family member is trying to decide how to seat all the relatives at a holiday family gathering. Some relatives disagree with each other politically, and it’s best not to put them near each other, but this might leave other people feeling left out. This type of problem is known as one that is:

1. clearly defined.
2. top down.
3. bottom up.
4. poorly defined.

Poorly defined problem

Which of the following is a poorly defined problem that might create difficulties for older adults who lack computer expertise?

1. following online videos that demonstrate the solution.
2. installing new software that has no printed instructions.
3. inserting cords into color-coded outlets on a desktop computer.
4. following the 1-2-3 steps on printer instruction setup sheet.

Attraction effect

Studies on the attraction effect in problem-solving show that older adults:

1. can be easily lured by brightly colored food containers.
2. have difficulty choosing between similar alternatives.
3. are less likely to change their preferences in response to a lure.
4. place more emphasis on value than on price.

Heuristics

A greater reliance on __________ may lead older problem solvers to make errors when approaching familiar problems.

1. heuristics
2. appearance
3. instructions
4. analytics

Memory and problem-solving

An experimental study of problem-solving in older compared to younger monkeys showed that the older monkeys were hampered by which factor?

1. poor eyesight
2. memory problems
3. lack of experience
4. failing heuristics

Everyday Problems Test

Performance on the Everyday Problems Test by older adults shows that their scores are related to:

1. choice attractiveness.
2. availability of rewards.
3. individual reaction time.
4. awareness of alternatives.

Everyday Problems Test

Research on the relationship between age and performance on the Everyday Problems Test shows significant variations by:

1. gender.
2. memory.
3. education.
4. occupation.

Formal operations

Being able to use abstract symbols and logic to get to solutions are key abilities included in which of Piaget’s stages?

1. problem-finding.
2. assimilation.
3. heuristic analysis.
4. formal operations.

Dialectical thinking

You notice that some of your older relatives seem to enjoy debating just for the sake of debating, not because they actually disagree. This type of thinking applies most closely to which concept based, in part, on Piaget’s theory?

1. formal operations
2. logical thought
3. dialectical
4. fluid intelligence

Trolley problem

The moral dilemma known as the ____________ illustrates the relativism in post-formal and dialectical thinking?

1. cereal choice
2. trolley problem
3. attraction effect
4. physician decision

Trolley problem

The trolley problem, in which you must decide whether to take action to save the five or do nothing to save the one, illustrates which feature of adult cognition?

1. abstract reasoning
2. formal operations
3. dialectical thinking
4. heuristic choice

Adult learners

Adult education population

What is the percent of the adult education population in the U.S. that is ages 70 and older?

1. 8
2. 21
3. 27
4. 44

Adult education population

Which percentage of the adult population ages 17 and older are involved in some form of adult education courses outside of high school or college?

1. 12
2. 56
3. 27
4. 44

Adult learners

An increasing number of adult learners are seeking classes in which specific area of study?

1. Auto maintenance and repair
2. English as a Second Language
3. Emotional intelligence
4. Everyday problem solving

Intelligence

WAIS perceptual reasoning

Matrix reasoning on the WAIS-IV is a test of which group of abilities?

1. Verbal comprehension
2. Processing speed
3. Perceptual reasoning
4. Working memory

WAIS verbal comprehension

The Verbal Comprehension Index on the WAIS-IV includes which test?

1. Matrix reasoning
2. Coding
3. Similarities
4. Symbol search

PMAT

In contrast to the WAIS-IV, the Primary Mental Abilities Test (PMAT) is given in which format?

1. individual administration
2. peer-to-peer
3. online scoring
4. group testing

Cattell-Horn-Carroll model

In the Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of intelligence, which tests fit into the category of domain-specific knowledge?

1. reading and writing
2. attentional fluency
3. kinesthetic perception
4. learning efficiency

Cattell-Horn-Carroll model

The five broad areas in the Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of intelligence include motor, perception, controlled attention, knowledge, and:

1. vocabulary
2. speed
3. fluid reasoning
4. retrieval fluency

Cattell-Horn-Carroll model

In Cattell and Horn’s theory of intelligence, which ability refers to innate abilities not tied to specific educational experiences?

1. crystallized
2. number
3. fluid
4. memory

SLS findings

The earliest declines in the SLS on intelligence test scores were found to occur in which area?

1. vocabulary
2. reasoning
3. number
4. fluency

Sex differences

Recent findings from studies comparing men and women in age-related performance on intelligence tests have begun to draw attention to which possible influence on previous studies?

1. socialization
2. brain size
3. hormones
4. birth weight

Prefrontal cortex

The part of the brain that seems most related to fluid intelligence test scores in later adulthood is the:

1. hypothalamus.
2. prefrontal cortex.
3. temporal lobe.
4. hippocampus.

Fluid intelligence and mortality

Supporting the idea that the survivors are more intellectually able than those who drop out of a longitudinal study, Canadian researchers found lower scores on measures of _____________ intelligence were related to higher mortality.

1. musical
2. fluid
3. dialectical
4. formal

Reserve capacity

The term “reserve capacity” in adult development and aging refers to the idea that:

1. older adults have untapped or untested abilities.
2. individuals higher in social class have higher intelligence test scores.
3. extensive social networks protect older adults against decline.
4. training studies in later life show relatively few benefits.

Openness-Fluid-Crystallized model

According to the ____________-Fluid-Crystallized-Intelligence model, which personality factor protects older adults against cognitive decline?

1. openness
2. dialectical
3. anxiety
4. happiness

ACTIVE study

In the ACTIVE study, cognitive training had continued benefits in which outcome measure in the 10-year follow-up?

1. levels of anxiety
2. videogame performance
3. instrumental activities of daily living
4. cardiovascular health

Wisdom

Berlin Wisdom Paradigm

The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm proposes that people who are wise have which quality?

1. can take advice from others
2. are able to quickly solve problems
3. can live with uncertainty
4. hold liberal political attitudes

Emodiversity

The concept of “emodiversity” with respect to wisdom suggests that wise people have:

1. generally positive moods.
2. the ability to laugh.
3. a desire to avoid unpleasant experiences.
4. a rich and varied emotional life.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

In Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory, one component of wisdom would involve which type of intelligence?

1. Naturalistic
2. Kinesthetic
3. Intrapersonal
4. Linguistic

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

A 76-year-old woman living in an urban apartment decides to join a neighborhood co-op to create a green space in the city. This opportunity will allow her primarily to develop which of Gardner’s multiple intelligences?

1. Naturalistic
2. Visual-spatial
3. Intrapersonal
4. Verbal-linguistic

Short answer questions

Executive functioning and its measurement

1. What are the major neuropsychological assessment measures?

2. Which measures of intelligence are the least biased by cultural factors? Which are the most?

3. What changes have taken place in the WAIS leading up to the present WAIS-IV?

Language

1. What are the five major changes in cognitive ability that affect language in older adults?
2. How do older adults compensate in their use of language for changes in cognitive ability?
3. Define and describe the communication predicament model. How does it relate to the concept of elderspeak?

Everyday problem solving

1. What are five of the tests used in the Everyday Problems Test? What are these tests attempting to measure?
2. Describe two advantages and two disadvantages that older problem solvers have based on their greater experience.
3. Discuss three implications of age differences in problem solving and thinking for those who teach adult learners.
4. What are three characteristics of post-formal thinkers?

Intelligence

1. Outline the major developments in the measurement of intelligence.
2. Define and contrast fluid and crystallized intelligence. Provide two examples of each type of ability.
3. List and define the five scales on the PMA used in the Seattle Longitudinal Study.
4. Summarize the main findings of the SLS in terms of the scales of the PMA.
5. Provide two examples of cohort effects as found in the SLS.
6. Define the five aspects of intelligence and plasticity investigated by Baltes.

Essay questions

1. How do the concepts of problem-finding and post-formal operations relate to alternative views of intelligence in adulthood?
2. What are the practical implications of findings on intelligence for understanding the performance of older workers on the job?
3. How might training studies on intelligence incorporate the concept of wisdom?
4. Which do you think is more important for competent functioning in adulthood: the pragmatics or the mechanics of intelligence? Justify your answer.
5. How might age changes in intelligence relate to identity processes? What advice or counseling would you provide to older adults who are concerned about loss of their intellectual skills?
6. Identify a poorly-defined problem that you’ve recently faced, and describe the challenges you face in trying to solve it.