CHAPTER 6

Basic Cognitive Functions: Information Processing, Attention, and Memory

Lecture guidelines

The text material for this chapter can be brought to life in lecture by focusing on the relevance of cognitive skills to everyday life. Driving, of course, is an excellent topic for bringing together much of the research on cognition and aging. Engage students in discussions of how they would redesign roadways to reduce the number of accidents involving older drivers. Students will also be interested in the area of videogames and aging, reflecting on their own interest in videogames to inform the discussion. Another excellent area of discussion involves the ways that older adults can affect their own cognitive aging through memory and memory control strategies, particularly as these intersect with identity.

Videos and films

There are several useful videos and files that highlight key features of the topic, including a critique of Lumosity (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MFgOEICnyc) and a video showing grandparents teaching their grandchildren how to use objects from the past (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KPQPsdxpXuM). The default mode network is illustrated in this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6A-RqZzd2JU. Finally, the method of loci, also known as Memory Palace technique, is shown here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2cJlVTEh5WU.

Discussion questions

Processing speed and attention

Although there is consistent slowing of reaction time in adulthood, is this slowing (on the order of 1/2-2 seconds) significant in its effects on everyday life?

Does the general slowing hypothesis seem sophisticated enough to you to serve as an explanation of the effects of aging on cognition?

Do you have difficulty with attention and concentration? How does this affect your ability to learn and remember?

How would you feel if you were a participant in an experiment involving these procedures? Do you think your performance would reflect your abilities to use attentional processes in your everyday life?

What real-life situations are comparable to those used in studies involving shifts of attention?

Do you think you are good at divided attention tasks? How easy or difficult is it for you to study when other people are talking or playing music?

To what extent is sustained attention needed in everyday life?

Do you think videogames can help older adults maintain or regain speed and attentional skills?

Which attentional task is most difficult for older adults? Why might this be the case?

What is the major area of support for each theory of aging and attention?

Which theory do you think fits the experience you have had with older adults? Why?

Driving and aging

Should older drivers be required to take road tests? Why?

Would you feel more comfortable in an airplane piloted by someone 60 and older or someone who is 30 years of age? Why?

Are most older drivers good at regulating their own driving habits? Have you had an encounter with an older driver who was unsafe?

Given that younger drivers mix speed and alcohol, why does society have such negative attitudes toward older drivers?

Do you agree that making intersections into rotaries would help reduce auto accidents? Why or why not?

Memory

What happens to people who do not have the ability to remember events from their lives?

Do you feel that your memory is changing as you get older? (College students often will say that they feel they are getting "senile"!)

Can you think of examples of using your working memory?

Do you feel your working memory has changed?

How would age differences in working memory affect other aspects of cognition?

Why do you think that certain memory tasks such as implicit memory are retained in later life?

Do you feel that the events in your life now will be ones that you remember for many years into the future? What do you think you'll remember and what do you think you'll forget?

What strategies do you find useful to help your memory?

Do you think you have a good memory or a bad memory? How does this affect the way you feel about yourself?

Why do you think some memory interventions work with older adults and some do not?

Multiple choice questions

AgeFeed

AgeFeed advice

AgeFeed provides which of the following pieces of advice to help people preserve their cognitive functioning?

1. Drink plenty of water.
2. Don’t write things down.
3. Engage in multitasking.
4. Put words into sentences.

Mnemonic strategies

As pointed out in AgeFeed, which of the following is an example of using mnemonics?

1. Visualizing an image over and over in your mind.
2. Rhyming a person’s name with something about the person.
3. Simply rehearsing information you wish to remember.
4. Asking other people to job your memory when it fails.

Processing speed and attention

Brinley plot

By using a Brinley plot, researchers are able to establish the relationship between:

1. memory on visual tasks compared to memory on verbal tasks.
2. speed of performance in relationship to accuracy.
3. performance of older adults in relationship to that of younger adults.
4. age and scores on measures of verbal memory.

Brinley plot

The primary advantage of using a Brinley plot to understand aging and reaction time is that it shows:

1. relative difficulty of speeded tasks for older compared to younger adults.
2. the effect of positive reinforcement on helping older adults respond more quickly.
3. what happens when older adults are forced to take memory tests in the evening.
4. the impact of personality on measures of visual attention.

Simple reaction time

Performing a response as soon as you see a target on a screen is known as a ____________ reaction time task.

1. simple
2. processing
3. decisional
4. choice

Serial search

Simple search tasks, on which older adults perform relatively well, use which type of attentional processing?

1. parallel
2. serial
3. conjunctive
4. inhibitory

General slowing hypothesis

According to the General Slowing Hypothesis proposed by Timothy Salthouse, older people perform more slowly on reaction time tasks because they are experience changes in:

1. circadian rhythms.
2. stereotype threat.
3. environmental stimulation.
4. processing resources.

General slowing hypothesis

The role of cognitive resources is given the most emphasis in which theory of aging and attention?

1. inhibitory deficit
2. Stroop interference
3. Brinley plot
4. general slowing

Inhibitory deficit hypothesis

An inability to tune out irrelevant information is proposed by the _________________ hypothesis of aging and attention.

1. plasticity
2. scaffolding
3. inhibitory deficit
4. peripheral resources

Inhibitory deficit hypotheis

Contradicting the inhibitory deficit hypothesis of aging and attention, researchers find that older adults are able to handle information if it is presented in:

1. single color displays.
2. sequential order.
3. rapid succession.
4. two different modalities.

Inhibitory deficit hypothesis

According to the inhibitory deficit hypothesis, older adults have more attentional problems because they are unable to:

1. provide a fast and accurate response.
2. divide their attention between tasks.
3. tune out irrelevant information.
4. scan stimuli for prolonged periods.

Stroop test

The experimental task that involves reading a color word such as “red” in letters colored blue is known as the ____________ test.

1. Brinley
2. Smith
3. Stroop
4. Field

Multitasking

Students don’t always like it when their professors ask them not to text or go on social media during class, saying it doesn’t affect their comprehension of class material. However, based on the research, it’s fair to say that:

1. multitasking shows no negative effects on performance for young adults but does harm performance of older adults.
2. monitoring multiple inputs can actually increase the efficiency of everyone’s cognitive functioning.
3. everyone performs more poorly after multitasking, though older adults are more affected than young adults.
4. you don’t know the answer because you were texting during this part of the class./younger adults are indeed less able to multitask than are older adults who have had more experience.

Videogames and attention

Researchers who study the effect of videogames on attentional abilities and speed on long-term young adult players note the need to caution for:

1. gender differences.
2. lack of familiarity with computers.
3. personality traits.
4. self-selection bias.

UFOV

A 65-year-old woman is concerned that her 77-year-old husband may be experiencing changes in his driving ability. To assess whether this is true, she takes him to a driving assessment lab where, in a simulator, they test him on this key driving skill indicator:

1. Stroop Inhibitory Device
2. Useful Field of View
3. N-back Working Memory Task
4. Flashbulb Memory Detection

Driving and aging

Fatal crashes and BAC

U.S. statistics on drivers involved in fatal crashes show that which age group has the highest percentage whose blood alcohol levels are .08g/dL or above?

1. 16-20
2. 45-54
3. 25-34
4. 35-44

Self-test older drivers

Questions developed by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in a self-test for older drivers include:

1. How old were you when you first got your license?
2. Are loved ones concerned?
3. Does your car have all-wheel drive?
4. Do you drive for business or pleasure?

Driving tips

Recommendations to help older adults improve their driving include which of the following steps?

1. Drive during daylight and in good weather.
2. Check your GPS while driving so you don’t get lost.
3. Increase your speed so that you don’t hold up traffic.
4. Wear glasses, even if you don’t think you need them.

Airline pilots

Although older airline pilots have fewer fatal accidents than their younger counterparts, researchers report that their performance may be negatively affected by:

1. lack of familiarity with new systems.
2. failure to follow regulations.
3. disrupted sleep schedules.
4. poorer hearing and vision.

Memory

Working memory

Many researchers have observed that older adults have more difficulty with ___________ memory, in which they must hold one item in mind while completing another task.

1. semantic
2. working
3. prospective
4. flashbulb

Default network

The part of the brain responsible for “thinking” about internally-generated stimuli, such as when you’re daydreaming, is known as the:

1. limbic system
2. frontal cortex
3. retrieval circuit
4. default network

Default network

In focusing on incoming information needed for a memory test, older adults seem to have difficulty turning off the brain’s ______________, which processes internal stimuli.

1. default network
2. hippocampus
3. hypothalamus
4. prefrontal cortex

Working memory

Because they have difficulty in working memory, older adults find it more challenging to:

1. remember events from the distant past.
2. think of the meaning of specific words.
3. keep information actively in mind.
4. remember how to perform a familiar task.

Working memory task

Which of the following patterns of stimuli would be used in a 2-back trial testing working memory in older adults where the target letter is F?

1. T-F-F-N
2. T-F-P-F
3. F-T-T-N
4. T-T-N-F

Scaffolding theory

The four components of scaffolding theory are engagement, exercise, cognitive training and:

1. decoupling.
2. rebuilding.
3. new learning.
4. imagining.

Semantic

Remembering an event from your past, such as your first day of college, falls into the category of _____________ memory.

1. working
2. implicit
3. episodic
4. semantic

Retrieval-induced forgetting

You’re chatting with an older relative about recent movies, and she can’t seem to remember the name of the lead actor. You can’t remember the name either even though you greatly enjoyed the movie. Both of you are suffering from the memory problem known as:

1. procedural slip.
2. flashbulb forgetting.
3. retrieval-induced forgetting.
4. stereotype threat.

Procedural memory

Although she hasn’t made her “famous” recipe for macaroni and cheese in years, your favorite aunt is able to put it together for a pot-luck family gathering without even having to consult her cookbook. This is an example of what type of memory, often preserved in older adults?

1. procedural
2. declarative
3. episodic
4. prospective

Prospective memory

A 73-year-old woman schedules an appointment with a nurse practitioner for a flu shot. On the day of the appointment, though, she doesn’t show up and is embarrassed to get a call from the medical office asking why. This is an example of failure of what type of memory?

1. episodic
2. prospective
3. semantic
4. source

Social status

Studies showing the beneficial effects to memory of food in the diet for older adults may biased due to the effects of:

1. food allergies.
2. social status.
3. nationality.
4. gender.

Functional training

Of the following, the type of exercise most likely to promote cognitive functioning in older adults involves:

1. athletic competition.
2. indoor videogames.
3. functional training.
4. recreational games.

IGF-1

The hormone known as _________ was found, in a Mayo Clinic study, to have potentially beneficial effects on cognition in women.

1. HRT-2
2. IMF-9
3. IGF-1
4. VitB-12

Memory for names

Memory for names by older adults may be poorer due to which factor?

1. lack of interest in learning new names.
2. poorer implicit memory.
3. less accurate procedural knowledge.
4. unfamiliarity with contemporary first names.

False memory

Researchers believe that because older adults form global memories about knowledge presented to them, they are more likely to recall:

1. emotional meaning.
2. false memories.
3. names rather than places.
4. past rather than present events.

Reminiscence bump

The reminiscence bump in long-term memory is most likely to involve ages:

1. 4-6
2. 80-90
3. 10-30
4. 35-40

Memory self-efficacy

Boosting an older individual’s memory____________ can help overcome even brain deficits or negative beliefs about aging.

1. self-efficacy
2. uncontrollability
3. stress levels
4. assimilation

Memory self-efficacy

An older man calls his credit card company to make an inquiry about a recent charge. When prompted to type in the number, he pulls out the card to double check it, even though he is almost always able to recite it when needed without having to look at the card. His uncertainty about the credit card number, in this case, is an example of his low:

1. procedural memory.
2. memory controllability.
3. flashbulb memory.
4. memory self-efficacy.

Memory self-efficacy

For older adults, being high in memory self-efficacy means that they believe:

1. they can control their abilities.
2. aging involves inevitable cognitive losses.
3. they can successfully complete memory tasks.
4. memory is an important cognitive ability.

Memory controllability

The older adults least likely to take advantage of strategies to improve their memory are low in which type of memory-related belief?

1. conscious threat
2. controllability
3. activity
4. self-efficacy

Stereotype threat

Prior to administering a memory test, a research assistant informs the older adult participants that the task is particularly difficult for people 65 years of age and older. Although perhaps unintentional, the research assistant has prompted the older participants to experience:

1. stereotype threat.
2. retrieval interference.
3. reminiscence bump.
4. implicit memory bias.

Essentialist view

According to the ______________ view, aging involves inevitable declines in memory.

1. hippocampal
2. prospective
3. essentialist
4. self-efficacy

Deep processing

Training older individuals to use ______________ to encode information can help improve performance on episodic memory tasks.

1. deep processing
2. passive repetition
3. rote memory
4. serial processing

Method of loci

The use of method of loci as a memory strategy to help older adults involves which set of steps?

1. re-reading lists of items to be remembered.
2. asking for help from younger adults.
3. linking names of places with names of people.
4. associating items with rooms in the home.

ACTIVE study

The ACTIVE study on memory in older adults found the most positive effects for which type of training?

1. logic
2. number
3. speed
4. vocabulary

Prospective memory

Older adults may experience difficulties in ___________ memory, in which they have to remember to complete a task at a certain time in the future.

1. episodic
2. semantic
3. prospective
4. implicit

Dietary supplements

Research on the efficacy of dietary supplements for improving memory in older adults provides at least some support for:

1. beta-carotene.
2. vitamin D3.
3. antioxidant vitamins.
4. gingko biloba.

Metabolic syndrome

People with the health condition known as ______________ appear to be more likely to experience memory loss as they get older.

1. osteoporosis
2. hypothyroidism
3. chronic emphysema
4. metabolic syndrome

Gingko biloba not effective

Research on the efficacy of health behaviors and dietary supplements for improving memory in older adults provides no support for:

1. functional training.
2. insulin growth factor-1.
3. antioxidant vitamins.
4. gingko biloba.

Identity accommodation

A woman believes that even a slight memory slip means she is inevitably going “downhill” mentally. This belief suggests that she is high in which identity process?

1. controllability
2. accommodation
3. reminiscence
4. assimilation

Stress and memory

Researchers studying the relationship between stress and memory performance in older adults suggest that __________________ accounts for the poorer memories of people who report high daily stressors.

1. adopting poorer eating habits
2. metabolic syndrome
3. stereotype threat
4. drains on attentional resources

Short answer questions

Processing speed and attention

1. Provide examples of three situations in which information processing changes are important in the functioning of older adults.
2. Indicate two situations in which divided and sustained attention might be used in everyday life. What are the implications of the effects of aging on these components of attention?
3. Contrast the two major theoretical approaches to understanding age-related changes in attention.
4. What are three problems in research on videogames and aging?

Driving and Aging

1. What are five steps older adults can take to improve their driving?
2. Describe the three biopsychosocial components in the model of driving and aging?

Memory

1. What are the four components of the scaffolding model of aging and memory?
2. What the four types of memory in older adults that remain stable?
3. Which five types of memory in older adults show age-related declines?

Essay questions

1. Explain how you think that identity assimilation and identity accommodation relate to cognitive processes. What treatment strategies would you devise for people who are having difficulty with their memories in part due to these aspects of identity processes?
2. Which theory of information processing and aging do you believe holds greater promise as a method of intervention for older adults with cognitive problems?
3. Describe how the daily routines of older adults might be affected by changes in five aspects of memory functioning described in the chapter.
4. Identify a confusing intersection in your own hometown or region of campus. What makes it confusing? How do you think an older driver would figure out how to navigate the intersection?
5. Defend the idea of using rotaries instead of intersections to reduce traffic accidents. What rotaries have you experienced, and how easy or hard were they to use for you? Would they help or hinder the older driver?
6. Why is driving best conceived as a biopsychosocial process? Name and describe three elements each within the bio, psycho, and social components of the model.