CHAPTER 10

Work, Retirement, and Leisure Patterns

Lecture guidelines

The broad coverage of this chapter includes portions of the field of occupational sociology, vocational psychology, industrial-organizational psychology, retirement, and leisure. There are potentially two lectures worth of material, depending on how in-depth the instructor wishes to go with any particular area. Statistics on the labor force, occupational level, income, and education provide an excellent opportunity for discussions of diversity. In addition to pointing out these issues with regard to diversity, there is also opportunity for the instructor to illustrate several significant points within the biopsychosocial perspective. For example, occupational level and income interact significantly with health to influence mortality in middle and later adulthood. Therefore, it is important, when reviewing these statistics, to point out their "human" meaning. The area of vocational development is potentially of great interest to students, who are heavily involved in the process of finding their own vocational identity. Holland's model and the accompanying O*NET system can be helpful in encouraging them to think about where they are heading in life.

The areas of vocational satisfaction and performance, similarly, lend themselves to considerable discussion and self-scrutiny among students. They will be spending the majority of their waking lives for the next forty to fifty years involved in work. Posing the question of what they will find satisfactory from this activity can get them involved in thinking about how older workers feel and perform. It is also important to educate students about age discrimination, as most of them will not have heard of the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) until taking this class.

The area of retirement seems distant indeed to an average-age college student. Although some forward-thinking individuals may be planning how they will start their IRA's, retirement seems as real a possibility to most students as a trip to the moon. However, by presenting retirement as a current social issue involving huge implications for the economy, students can be encouraged to think about the phenomenon in a more concrete fashion. Real-life examples of retired people talking about their experiences (in videotape or in person) would also help bring the points home.

Finally, given the burgeoning leisure industry, it is becoming increasingly important for students to be knowledgeable about this aspect of the retirement experience. Students can certainly appreciate the importance and value of leisure, based on its role in their own lives. By examining aging and leisure patterns, students can therefore gain practical knowledge of potential use in their own careers as well as a basis for relating to older adults in this common area of importance in life.

Videos and films

There are a number of news programs that regularly cover issues related to retirement, and these can be interspersed with the latter portion of the lecture. YouTube can provide up-to-date examples showing retired individuals involved in a variety of interesting activities, including volunteering or remaining employed in a job they love well into their 80s.

Feelings that adults have about work can be depicted through showing any one of many popular movies or television shows in which characters are disaffected with their jobs. A humorous movie that is a classic among many undergraduates is "Office Space" (starring Jennifer Aniston and Ron Livingstone). A scene from “The Office” demonstrates age discrimination when Michael Scott provides a very poor model of how to deal with age (“Dunder Mifflin Infinity”). Difficulties in the early stages of career development are demonstrated in “The Devil Wears Prada.”

Discussion questions

Work patterns in adulthood

Why have labor force participation rates by age changed over the past 40 years?

Why do women earn less than men even at the highest occupational levels?

Does knowing that your college degree will lead to a higher salary have motivating value for you?

Why is a college education and beyond related to higher earnings in adulthood?

What might the impact be on health and lifestyle of lower education among minority adults over 65?

How have older minority adults been limited in their educational and occupational attainments by discrimination when they were younger? Has the situation improved in recent decades? Why or why not?

Vocational development

How is a vocation different from or the same as an occupation?

Do you think there are advantages to the federal government of the U.S. having a standard job classification system? What are these?

How would you use the O*NET to find the right job for you?

What are the limitations of the RIASEC model?

Are people free to choose their own vocations or are they limited? What might these limiting factors be?

If you were putting together a team of workers, would you combine people with similar profiles or people who had opposite profiles from each other?

Do you think people choose their leisure activities on the basis of the same or the opposite type that they express in the workplace?

Does Super's theory make sense in contemporary Western society in which people do not experience a static set of stages throughout their careers? Or does the theory have universal applicability? Justify your answer. How do the concepts of recycling, boundaryless, and protean careers change your thoughts about Super’s theory?

How does Super's theory differ from Holland's? What are the implications of Super's theory for vocational satisfaction in adulthood?

Vocational satisfaction

How important is it to you that you find satisfaction in your job?

What factors might predict vocational satisfaction in adulthood?

Can you identify the intrinsic and extrinsic factors in a job that you held or are currently holding? Which are or were more important to you?

Why might extrinsic rewards lower intrinsic satisfaction with work?

Can you describe the ORP of a job you have held?

Do you know people who seem happy all the time and therefore would probably like any job?

How has “affect spin” played out in your daily life?

Can work and family life relate positively to each other or are they always in conflict?

What are the implications of studies showing negative relationships between work and family life?

How can workers maintain a positive attitude toward their jobs even when they have held them for many years?

Suggest some possible relationships between identity and vocational satisfaction in adulthood. For instance, if a firm is being downsized, might a worker reduce job commitment as a way of protecting the self in the event that he or she is laid off?

Age and vocational performance

Is it inevitable that performance should decline in older workers? Why or why not?

Why was there a need for the ADEA?

What are the practical implications of the “Aging and Job Performance Scorecard”?

Retirement

Why do gerontologists prefer to view retirement as a process rather than an event?

Would you prefer to retire all at once or would you rather do so in stages?

What will be the future of the Social Security system? What are the projections for its "security" in the next 20 to 30 years?

Why was mandatory retirement abolished in most occupations? Should it be reinstated to allow younger workers to have more jobs?

Which theory of retirement and the individual fits most closely with your own views on the subject? Will you look forward to or dread retirement?

Why do certain people suffer more ill effects of retirement than do others?

Which factor seems most important to retirement adjustment in your experience?

Do you think that women have an easier or more difficult time in retirement than do men? Why or why not?

Will the retirement experience of women differ in the future from what it is today?

Leisure pursuits in adulthood

How do your leisure activities fit into your identity?

Do you think that, over time, your leisure interests will change? If so, how might they change?

Will the leisure interests of the older generation change as the Baby Boomers move into later adulthood? What might these changes be?

How might leisure interests vary as a function of socioeconomic status and income?

Multiple choice questions

AgeFeed

Facts vs. myths

According to AgeFeed, one of the facts (vs. myths) about older workers is that they:

1. are more expensive than younger ones.
2. can be easily replaced by younger workers.
3. are team players.
4. are less flexible than younger ones.

Facts vs. myths

According to AgeFeed, one of the myths (vs. facts) about older workers is that they:

1. try hard to get a task done right the first time.
2. can be easily replaced by younger workers.
3. learn new skills to stay competitive in the workplace.
4. are a good fit to startup companies.

Work patterns in adulthood

75+ in labor force 2028

By the year 2028, approximately what percent of the population 75 and older will be in the U.S. civilian labor force?

1. 5.1
2. 7.2
3. 2.2
4. .5

65-74 labor force 2028

By the year 2028, approximately what percent of the population 65 to 74 will be in the U.S. civilian labor force?

1. 5.1
2. 7.2
3. 2.2
4. 12.9

Unemployment 2018

As of 2018, the unemployment rate for people 25 and older who have a bachelor’s degree was:

1. 2.2
2. 1.6
3. 3.7
4. 2.8

Earnings by education

The median weekly earnings in 2018 for workers with a Master’s degree was $___.

1. 1198
2. 1434
3. 1825
4. 862

Women with young children in labor force

As of 2018, ____% of women living with a spouse and who have children under 3 years of age are in the U.S. labor force.

1. 53
2. 75
3. 69
4. 62

Gender gap

As of 2017, women earned approximately ____% of the earnings of men.

1. 77
2. 86
3. 82
4. 91

Gender gap by occupation

In which category of occupations is there the lowest gender gap?

1. office and administrative support
2. sales
3. financial management
4. professional

Gender gap explanation

The gender gap in women’s earnings can be explained primarily by which factor?

1. more years of part-time work
2. employment in occupations with lower earnings
3. fewer paid years of employment
4. preference for child-oriented professions

Education by age

What percentage of adults 65 years of age and older have a college degree?

1. 9.4
2. 32.5
3. 26.7
4. 11.0

Unemployed veterans

The smallest percentage of unemployed veterans is in which age group?

1. 18-24
2. 55-74
3. 35-44
4. 18-24

Vocational development

RIASEC model

Holland’s vocational development theory describes the RIASEC model, which stands for the:

1. government agency that tracks employment
2. six factors that make up the model.
3. names of the six stages of development.
4. corporation where initial testing was done.

RIASEC model - conventional

A career counselor working with a client seeking to change occupations uses Holland’s RIASEC model to determine that the client would feel most satisfied in a career as an accountant. This suggests that the client is high on which of the RIASEC types?

1. realistic
2. artistic
3. conventional
4. enterprising

RIASEC model - enterprising

Of the following, which of the following occupations would be considered an example of an Enterprising type, in the RIASEC model?

1. guidance counselor
2. salesperson
3. construction worker
4. graphic designer

RIASEC model - conventional

Both a financial analyst and an accountant would be considered to occupy jobs with the ___________ designation, according to the RIASEC model.

1. social
2. investigative
3. conventional
4. enterprising

RIASEC model – artistic/social

Having majored in art during college for two years, as a junior the student realizes that in order to get a job, it will be necessary to get additional training in another field. The closest occupation in the RIASEC model to artist would be in which area?

1. sales manager
2. financial analyst
3. cook
4. teaching

RIASEC model - investigative

People who want to become mathematicians, in the RIASEC model, would be high on which of the six types?

1. Artistic
2. Investigative
3. Conventional
4. Realistic

People/things

The RIASEC types can be fit into two underlying dimensions of people/things vs.:

1. artistic/conventional
2. employed/unemployed
3. data/ideas
4. congruent/incongruent

Congruence

A career counselor following the RIASEC model of vocational development would attempt to assess which feature of a client’s relationship to work?

1. maturity.
2. self-determination.
3. enrichment.
4. congruence.

Incongruence

Workers who fail to develop as optimally as possible are, in Holland’s theory, referred to as:

1. incongruent.
2. protean.
3. boundaryless.
4. non self-directed

SVII

The Strong Vocational Interest Inventory (SVII) can help identify a worker’s RIASEC type by assessing their:

1. job skills
2. top interests
3. job motivation
4. level of congruence

O*NET

The O*NET is used in the area of occupations for which purpose?

1. To set the pay scale of a job.
2. As a model of vocational development.
3. To categorize all jobs in the U.S.
4. As a retirement preparation tool.

O*NET

If you wanted to find out about the prospects of a particular career in terms of salary and outlooks for hiring, which online resource could guide you?

1. SVII
2. ADEA
3. O*NET
4. SSN

Super’s theory

Super’s theory of vocational development assumes that people strive to express their __________ in their vocation.

1. values
2. self-concept
3. resources
4. self-determination

Life space-life stages

The concept of “life space-life stages” in Super’s theory is close to the ______________ model proposed by Bronfenbrenner.

1. environmental
2. psychosocial
3. ecological
4. selectivity

Plateau

Researcher on career development suggest that companies take which strategy to help keep workers in a plateau stay as motivated as possible?

1. provide mentoring opportunities
2. suggest early retirement
3. schedule regular office parties
4. encourage them to exercise

Calling

An occupation that is a “calling” is one that:

1. is in a service-related field.
2. requires an advanced degree.
3. provides personal meaning.
4. has lower than average pay.

Core self-evaluation

Work that allows an individual to feel a higher sense of self-esteem and inner directedness contributes to which psychological quality?

1. extrinsic motivation
2. career recycling
3. boundaryless career
4. core self-evaluation

Boundaryless career

A physician’s assistant in a group medical practice joins a local professional organization of physician’s assistants in order to share ideas and make connections with people in the area working in the same occupation. The joining of the professional organization represents which idea in vocational development?

1. congruence
2. career recycling
3. boundaryless career
4. exploration

Vocational satisfaction

Extrinsic motivation

You overhear a conversation in which two women are talking about how they feel about their job. Both of them complain about the long hours, low pay, and unpleasant surroundings in the workplace. These complaints reflect which factors in vocational satisfaction?

1. extrinsic motivation
2. protean career
3. intrinsic motivation
4. emotional labor

Self-determination theory

The three factors that influence a worker’s vocational satisfaction, according to Self-Determination Theory, are competence, relatedness, and:

1. achievement
2. support
3. autonomy
4. affect

Self-determination theory extrinsic

According to research on self-determination theory, workers who experience high extrinsic motivation are likely to show which set of job behaviors?

1. greater quality of work.
2. work-family enrichment.
3. occupational reinforcement.
4. greater quantity of work.

Affect spin

A retail sales manager is in the middle of a difficult day due to several employees not showing up for work and pressure from corporate headquarters to conduct a last-minute inventory. The following day, after a good night’s sleep, the manager is ready to tackle whatever happens at work. According to research on moods and vocational satisfaction, the manager has experienced:

1. motivational crowding out.
2. affect spin.
3. emotional labor.
4. person-environment congruence.

Occupational reinforcement theory

The job of a veterinarian, according to occupational reinforcement theory, is high on which value?

1. recognition
2. independence
3. achievement
4. support

Emotional labor

Individuals who would prefer not to reveal their sexual orientation in the workplace, due to fear of discrimination, are more likely to experience:

1. emotional labor.
2. affect spin.
3. strain-based conflict.
4. extrinsic motivation.

Whitehall II and justice

A Whitehall II study showed that workers who reported a higher perception of ______ at work also were less likely to develop metabolic syndrome.

1. freedom
2. justice
3. support
4. happiness

Work-family enrichment

In the work-family enrichment model, which is considered a positive influence of family roles on work roles?

1. sense of accomplishment
2. person-environment congruence
3. efficiency in time use
4. core self-evaluation

Work-family conflict

The work-family conflict model predicts that workers who are stressed by demands of work and family roles may show what effects while on the job?

1. low sense of personal control.
2. person-environment incongruence.
3. low self-determination.
4. counterproductive work behaviors.

ADEA

Which of the following behaviors by an employer in screening job applicants would be an example of violation of the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA)?

1. Asking for year of high school graduation.
2. Requesting immunization records.
3. Conducting a job skills assessment.
4. Requiring letters of reference.

Age and vocational performance

Age and performance scorecard

According to the age and job performance “scorecard,” which factor contributes to decline among older workers?

1. openness to change
2. experiencing age bias
3. collaborating with others
4. higher rate of injuries

Age and performance scorecard

The age and performance “scorecard” lists which factor as contributing toward greater productivity in older workers?

1. Switching to shift work.
2. Resisting on-the-job changes.
3. Having fewer absences.
4. Being allowed to work alone.

Retirement

Bridge employment

A former software engineer retires from a job at a high-tech firm and soon after, takes a position as a substitute high school math teacher. The engineer is showing which late-life work pattern?

1. crisp retirement
2. bridge employment
3. anticipatory retirement
4. protean career

Crisp retirement

A 66-year-old dentist retired from a group practice and moved to a different city to be closer to family. The dentist is an example of which retirement pattern?

1. involuntary
2. incongruent
3. indistinct
4. crisp

Social Security benefit

In 2019, what was the average monthly benefit for an individual receiving Social Security?

1. $2500
2. $4300
3. $1461
4. $873

Social Security beneficiaries

How many people (in millions) were receiving Social Security benefits in 2019?

1. 33.1
2. 67.9
3. 46.4
4. 22.7

Life course retirement theory

According to life course theory of retirement, retirees would be best able to adapt to this status by viewing it as a(n):

1. normative life event.
2. transition to a new role.
3. loss of an important life role.
4. obstacle that they need to overcome.

Pay-as-you-go

Social Security is “pay-as-you-go,” meaning that:

1. what you invest now will come back to you after you retire.
2. your payroll tax goes toward current retiree benefits.
3. you can choose to enroll or not in the system.
4. retirees are only entitled to received what they paid in.

Continuity theory

After formally retiring at the age of 68, a financial analyst continues to use the term “retired financial analyst” when being introduced to new people. This individual provides an example of which theory of retirement and the individual?

1. role
2. life span
3. continuity
4. autonomy

Leisure time

A study of retired vacationers showed that those who got the most out of their travels tended to:

1. use the time for self-discovery and reflection.
2. visit as many new destinations as they could afford.
3. spend as much time as they could by themselves.
4. renew their marital vows and relive their honeymoons.

Short answer questions

Work patterns in adulthood

1. Summarize the projected changes in the U.S. labor market as Baby Boomers grow older.
2. How are women affected by the gender gap? Do current statistics indicate any improvement in this situation for the future?

Vocational development

1. List the six types described in Holland's vocational development theory. Provide an example of an occupation in each type.
2. What are five criticisms of Holland's vocational development theory?
3. How will the RIASEC model most likely change in the future as it is applied to vocational development?
4. What are two important differences between Super's and Holland's models of vocational development?
5. Name and describe the four stages in Super's self-concept theory. What are two alternative paths added by Super in later versions of the theory?

Vocational satisfaction

1. Contrast intrinsic and extrinsic work factors and provide examples of each.
2. What are the major differences between two-factor theory and self-determination theory?
3. What are the three main motives described in self-determination theory?
4. What are the two major models describing conflict between work and family involvement in adulthood?

Age and vocational performance

1. Summarize the pros and cons of older workers based on the Aging and Performance Scorecard.
2. List three types of jobs that might be more difficult for older workers to perform.

Retirement

1. Contrast the three theories regarding the effects of retirement on the individual.
2. Examine the positive and negative factors in the retirement experience of people from high socioeconomic levels compared to those of low socioeconomic status.
3. What are the three patterns of retirement and how are each associated with health and activity outcomes?

Essay questions

1. Analyze the relationship between age and vocational satisfaction, taking into account job tenure, intrinsic and extrinsic factors, Super's theory of career development, and the effects of job discrimination.
2. You are the personnel manager of a large company. Based on research on age and vocational performance, and keeping in mind the ADEA, what factors would you consider when deciding how best to use the older workers in your company?
3. How does the history of attitudes toward retirement parallel the changes in the age distribution of the U.S. population in the 20th Century?
4. What is the possible relationship of identity processes to the decision to retire and adjustment to retirement of people who (a) undergo forced layoffs, and (b) make a voluntary decision to retire?
5. What advice might a vocational counselor give to women compared to men in preparing for their retirement?
6. On the O*NET site, what job seems to fit your own vocational type? Do you feel it would be your ideal job or would you prefer to work in another field?