Chapter.6 Learning Exam Questions

Student name:__________

1) Psychologists use the term ________ to refer to a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience.

A) "growth"
B) "maturation"
C) "cognition"
D) "learning"

2) Which of the following types of learning explains phenomena such as crying at the sight of a bride walking down the aisle, fearing the dark, and falling in love?

A) classical conditioning
B) operant conditioning
C) latent learning
D) cognitive learning

3) ________ permits us to ignore things that have stopped providing new information.

A) Stimulus discrimination
B) Extinction
C) Habituation
D) Stimulus generalization

4) You toss a newly purchased felt mouse across the floor; your cat chases it excitedly, clutches it in her paws, and rolls around with it. Several tosses later, your cat yawns pointedly and settles herself for a nap. The change in your cat's behavior illustrates

A) adaptation.
B) habituation.
C) conditioning.
D) maturation.

5) ________ is credited with laying the foundation for the study of classical conditioning in psychology.

A) Thorndike
B) Skinner
C) Pavlov
D) Watson

6) ________ is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.

A) Classical conditioning
B) Operant conditioning
C) Observational learning
D) Instrumental conditioning

7) ________ stimulus is a stimulus that does not naturally bring about the response of interest.

A) Reflexive
B) Unconditioned
C) Neutral
D) Normative

8) ________ stimulus is a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.

A) Conditioned
B) Unconditioned
C) Neutral
D) Normative

9) As a child, Tim loved salami sandwiches but was not particularly fond of dill pickles. However, his mother would always serve the pickles with salami sandwiches. Now, the sight of even an empty dill pickle jar makes his mouth water. In the context of classical conditioning, the pickle jar is a(n) ________ and salami is a(n) ________.

A) conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus
B) unconditioned stimulus; conditioned stimulus
C) neutral stimulus; unconditioned stimulus
D) conditioned stimulus; neutral stimulus

10) Alexis uses cocaine, which activates her sympathetic nervous system. Expecting her dealer, her hands shake and her heart pounds when she hears a knock on the door. Which alternative below correctly identifies the neutral stimulus, the CS, and the UCS?

A) neutral stimulus—knock on the door; CS—cocaine; UCS—cocaine
B) neutral stimulus—knock on the door; CS—knock on the door; UCS—pounding heart
C) neutral stimulus—knock on the door; CS—knock on the door; UCS—cocaine
D) neutral stimulus—cocaine; CS—knock on the door; UCS—cocaine

11) In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus

A) becomes a conditioned stimulus.
B) elicits a particular response that is a result of training.
C) elicits a particular response without having been learned.
D) becomes a neutral stimulus.

12) Which of the following is true of unconditioned responses?

A) They are led by conditioned stimuli.
B) They require the presence of a conditioned stimulus.
C) They require the presence of a neutral stimulus.
D) They occur naturally.

13) In Pavlov's study, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) was ________; the neutral stimulus was ________; and, finally, the conditioned stimulus (CS) was ________.

A) meat; the bell; meat
B) meat; the bell; the bell
C) the bell; meat; meat
D) meat; meat; the bell

14) Classical conditioning is most successful when the neutral stimulus begins

A) just before the unconditioned stimulus begins.
B) at exactly the same time that the unconditioned stimulus begins.
C) long before the unconditioned stimulus begins.
D) immediately after the unconditioned stimulus begins.

15) Many people experience hunger pangs at the sight of McDonald's golden arches. In the context of classical conditioning, the golden arches are a(n) ________ and the hunger pangs on seeing the arches are a(n) ________.

A) conditioned stimulus; conditioned response
B) unconditioned stimulus; conditioned response
C) unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response
D) neutral stimulus; unconditioned response

16) Jonas is a veteran of the war in Iraq. He suffers from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Now, back home in a quiet California neighborhood, he jumps when he hears a firecracker or a car backfire. In the terminology of classical conditioning, these sounds are best thought of as ________ stimuli.

A) neutral
B) unconditioned
C) conditioned
D) normative

17) In the context of classical conditioning, which of the following actions is most likely to produce extinction?

A) prolonging the association between conditioned stimuli and unconditioned stimuli
B) ending the association between conditioned stimuli and unconditioned stimuli
C) adding a negative reinforcer to the environment
D) adding a positive reinforcer to the environment

18) In the context of classical conditioning, during extinction, a conditioned stimulus is

A) presented by itself.
B) paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
C) paired with a neutral stimulus.
D) elicits an unconditioned response.

19) Danny visited the zoo with his parents. A week later, his grandparents took him to the zoo when he asked them. For the next few days, he kept asking his parents to take him to the zoo again. About two weeks later, he stopped asking to be taken to the zoo. The given scenario exemplifies

A) extinction.
B) reinforcement.
C) latent learning.
D) observational learning.

20) In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus are presented together during

A) habituation.
B) acquisition.
C) spontaneous recovery.
D) extinction.

21) The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning is known as

A) extinction.
B) habituation.
C) spontaneous recovery.
D) deconditioning.

22) Every time 5-year-old Peter picked up his toys, his mother gave him a penny. After some time, she stopped giving him pennies to pick up his toys. Over the next few weeks, Peter gradually stopped asking for pennies. Three months later, when Peter picked up his toys, he asked his mother for a penny. In the given scenario, Peter asking for a penny after a period of 3 months exemplifies

A) latent learning.
B) extinction.
C) spontaneous recovery.
D) reinforcement.

23) ________ is a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response.

A) Stimulus location
B) Stimulus generalization
C) Stimulus reflexive
D) Stimulus discrimination

24) Which of the following is TRUE of stimulus generalization?

A) It is the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another.
B) The greater the similarity between two stimuli, the greater the likelihood of stimulus generalization.
C) The conditioned response elicited by the new stimulus is usually more intense than the original conditioned response.
D) Stimulus generalization provides the ability to differentiate between stimuli.

25) Which of the following scenarios exemplifies stimulus generalization?

A) Margie learns to draw by watching her older brother draw.
B) Ethan does not eat any kind of mushroom, because as a child he ate a mushroom growing in his yard and fell sick.
C) Lanny does not drive yet but knows all the rules of driving because his mother frequently drives him to school.
D) Megan finishes her science homework on time because she got detention the last time she did not finish her homework.

26) Ramona takes her 4-year-old daughter to a park. While her daughter plays in the sand pit, Ramona sits and chats with her friends. When she hears two girls fighting, she does not worry as she recognizes that it's not her daughter's voice. The given scenario illustrates

A) stimulus generalization.
B) stimulus discrimination.
C) extinction.
D) latent learning.

27) June's cat runs to the kitchen at the sound of the electric can opener, which she has learned is used to open her food when her dinner is about to be served. The cat does not run when a blender is used, although it sounds similar. June's cat is demonstrating stimulus

A) control.
B) discrimination.
C) generalization.
D) diffusion.

28) When Mathew was a child, he ate some red berries from his garden. He fell violently sick after eating them. Now, he refuses to eat any red-colored fruits. In the context of classical conditioning, the given scenario illustrates

A) positive reinforcement.
B) stimulus discrimination.
C) stimulus generalization.
D) negative reinforcement.

29) Which of the following statements is true of learned taste aversion?

A) It illustrates the social cognitive approach to learning.
B) It can occur even with a gap of up to 8 hours between exposure to the stimulus and the response.
C) It requires repeated presentations of the same stimulus.
D) It occurs when a previously conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.

30) In what way does learned taste aversion not seem to follow the basic principles of classical conditioning?

A) In learned taste aversion, the CS and the unconditioned response (UCR) are separated by only a brief interval.
B) Learned taste aversion can occur after only a single CS-UCR pairing.
C) Learned taste aversion takes longer to develop than do most classical conditioning processes.
D) Learned taste aversion is subject to biologically based constraints while, classical conditioning is not.

31) ________ is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.

A) Classical conditioning
B) Operant conditioning
C) Observational learning
D) Instrumental conditioning

32) Operant conditioning most importantly involves forming associations between

A) neutral and unconditioned stimuli.
B) stimuli and involuntary behavior.
C) behavior and consequences.
D) conditioned response and reflex.

33) In operant conditioning, an organism

A) operates on its environment to produce a desirable result.
B) reacts to a stimulus in an unthinking, mechanical, and automatic manner.
C) uses active thought processes to decide its response to a stimulus.
D) imitates the behavior of a model.

34) The root of operant conditioning may be traced to ________'s early studies of hungry cats learning to escape from cages.

A) Skinner
B) Thorndike
C) Watson
D) Pavlov

35) "Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated." This is the law of

A) consequences.
B) reward.
C) effect.
D) reinforcement.

36) The most influential psychologist to study operant conditioning was

A) Freud.
B) Watson.
C) Pavlov.
D) Skinner.

37) The process by which a stimulus increases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated is called

A) habituation.
B) reinforcement.
C) learning.
D) spontaneous recovery.

38) Which of the following statements is true of primary reinforcers?

A) They work only if they can help fulfill needs other than biological needs.
B) They work naturally, regardless of a person's previous experience.
C) They work only if a person understands the importance of the particular reinforcer.
D) They are primarily associated with money.

39) A ________ is any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.

A) catalyst
B) rejoinder
C) reinforcer
D) stimulant

40) Reinforcers that satisfy a biological need are called ________ reinforcers.

A) primary
B) positive
C) unconditioned
D) reflexive

41) In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following is true of reinforcement?

A) It occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without an unconditioned stimulus.
B) It is used to decrease the relevant behavior.
C) Mirror neurons that fire when observing another person carrying out a behavior play a key role in the reinforcement of behavior.
D) The neurotransmitter dopamine plays a key role in the reinforcement of behavior.

42) Caroline is playing in the snow in her yard. Her father calls her to come inside the house as it is getting late. Caroline does not want to go inside and ignores her father. After a while, she starts to feel cold and goes inside the house to keep warm. In the given scenario, the feeling of warmth is a

A) conditioned stimulus.
B) primary reinforcer.
C) secondary reinforcer.
D) neutral stimulus.

43) Noah's mother gives him a dollar every Friday evening if he finishes his chores for the week without being reminded. He diligently finishes his chores every week, and he uses the money to buy candies over the weekend. In the given scenario, the weekly allowance acts as a(n)

A) secondary reinforcer.
B) primary reinforcer.
C) neutral stimulus.
D) unconditioned stimulus.

44) The term reward is associated with

A) positive reinforcement only.
B) reinforcement generally.
C) negative reinforcement only.
D) primary reinforcement only.

45) Cabe pulls a muscle in his leg. His doctor asks him to apply ice on the injury. Even though he does not like to apply cold packs, Cabe does it because he feels instant relief from the pain. In the given scenario, the relief from pain is a

A) negative punishment.
B) positive punishment.
C) negative reinforcer.
D) positive reinforcer.

46) As part of a behavior modification program, Kendra and her partner each agree to praise the other if they complete their assigned household chores by the end of the day. Such praise is an example of

A) primary reinforcement
B) tertiary reinforcement
C) positive reinforcement
D) negative reinforcement

47) A(n) ________ reinforcer is a stimulus added to the environment, like getting paid to work, that specifically brings about an increase in a preceding response.

A) primary
B) positive
C) unconditioned
D) neutral

48) A(n) ________ reinforcer refers to the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, putting on a sweater when you're cold for example, which leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future.

A) negative
B) secondary
C) unconditioned
D) neutral

49) Dr. Isonzo notices several students nodding in agreement as he lectures. Subsequently, his rhetoric becomes more confident and more passionate. The students have provided ________ reinforcement.

A) positive
B) secondary
C) conditioned
D) neutral

50) Which of the following statements is true of negative reinforcement?

A) It is the same thing as punishment.
B) It involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus.
C) It decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be performed.
D) It refers to the addition of a negative stimulus.

51) Which of the following scenarios exemplifies negative reinforcement?

A) Vanna fastens her seatbelt as soon as she gets in her car to stop the annoying alert sound.
B) Drake no longer cuts class, now that his parents have confiscated his iPod.
C) Maria now buys a different brand of cigarettes to get two packs for the price of one.
D) Nate no longer arrives late at work following a reprimand from his boss.

52) ________ weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus.

A) Negative reinforcement
B) Negative punishment
C) Positive punishment
D) Normative reinforcement

53) Which of the following scenarios exemplify negative punishment?

A) Astrid tells her daughter she is grounded for misbehaving and cannot meet her friends for a week.
B) Carly yells at her husband when he comes home drunk.
C) Jim makes his middle-schoolers run extra laps when they are unruly in gym class.
D) Joanie takes several ibuprofen tablets when she has a headache.

54) Which of the following is an example of positive punishment?

A) you fight with your significant other and walk away
B) getting a speeding ticket
C) grounding a child for misbehaving and not letting him/her watch television
D) giving your dog a treat for rolling over

55) Sheryl's parents have told her that she is "grounded" and will not be allowed to watch any television for a week, because she is not completing her assignments on time. This is an example of

A) negative punishment.
B) negative reinforcement.
C) positive punishment.
D) positive reinforcement.

56) Which of the following is an example of negative punishment?

A) you fight with your significant other and walk away
B) spanking a child for misbehaving
C) yelling at your spouse for being irresponsible
D) demoting an employee for poor job performance

57) Which of the following types of consequences is correctly matched with an example?

A) positive reinforcement—Vickie applies lotion to lessen the discomfort of a small burn
B) negative reinforcement—Ella's parents confiscate her car keys for breaking curfew
C) positive punishment—Laurel's mother yells at her when Laurel takes $20 from her mom's purse
D) negative punishment—Maddie receives a bonus for outstanding work performance

58) Identify the type of consequence that is correctly matched with an example.

A) positive reinforcement—Harvey is suspended when he vandalizes school property.
B) negative reinforcement—Jeff puts up his umbrella when it starts to sprinkle so he won't get wet.
C) positive punishment—Jacqueline's teacher puts a cute sticker on an arithmetic exercise completed without mistakes.
D) negative punishment—Tommy receives a written reprimand from his boss following a series of customer complaints.

59) Which of the following is a disadvantage of punishment?

A) It is ineffective if it is delivered immediately after the undesirable behavior.
B) It does not provide an opportunity to reinforce a person for subsequently behaving in a more desirable way.
C) It tends to change behavior very slowly.
D) It is ineffective if an individual is able to leave the setting in which the punishment is being given.

60) In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following statements is true of reinforcement?

A) A fixed-ratio schedule produces a steady stream of responses.
B) A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement elicits a low rate of response.
C) A continuous reinforcement schedule is the most effective reinforcement schedule with long-lasting results.
D) Behavior lasts longer after reinforcement stops when it is learned under a partial reinforcement schedule.

61) You don't receive a smile or a "thank you" each time you hold a door for the person behind you. It is acknowledged sometimes. Door-holding is reinforced on a(n) ________reinforcement schedule.

A) continuous
B) partial
C) regular
D) fixed

62) Vending machine is to slot machine what ________ reinforcement is to ________ reinforcement.

A) secondary; primary
B) continuous; intermittent
C) partial; intermittent
D) variable; fixed

63) A fixed-ratio schedule is a schedule

A) by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made.
B) by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number.
C) that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low.
D) by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed.

64) Which of the following promotions exemplifies the use of a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement?

A) A café prints "You are a winner" on a random one-twelfth of its coffee lids; patrons receiving such a lid can redeem it for a free beverage.
B) A café offers its customers a punch card. Each time a patron purchases a beverage, a hole is punched; when ten holes are punched, the patron receives a free beverage.
C) A café offers each patron an early morning two-for-one free-beverage-with-purchase deal from 5 to 6 a.m. on Monday mornings.
D) Now and then, a café announces a two-for-one deal.

65) Dr. Arceneaux wants his students to take advantage of online practice quizzes on his course site. Which of the following is the most effective plan to increase the number of practice quizzes completed?

A) 1 bonus point for every 2 online practice quizzes completed
B) 5 points deducted from course total if no quizzes are completed
C) 1 bonus point awarded every 2 weeks if 2 or more quizzes have been completed
D) 1 bonus point awarded every now and then (about 2 weeks on average) if 2 or more quizzes have been completed recently

66) A variable-ratio schedule is a schedule

A) by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made.
B) by which reinforcement occurs after a fluctuating number of responses rather than after a fixed number.
C) that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low.
D) by which the time between reinforcements does not change, leading to an earlier extinction than in a fixed-ratio schedule.

67) Dr. Arceneaux has developed several alternative plans to increase the number of online practice quizzes his students complete. Which plan below is incorrectly matched with the related schedule?

A) 1 bonus point for every two online practice quizzes completed—fixed-ratio
B) 1 bonus point awarded every 2 weeks if two or more quizzes have been completed—fixed-interval
C) 1 bonus point awarded every now and then (about 2 weeks on average) if two or more quizzes have been completed recently—variable-ratio
D) 1 bonus point awarded randomly, either for every 2 online quizzes taken or 2 bonus points for all those students who have taken the test within the first week—variable-interval

68) Mandy has a habit of buying lottery tickets every day. She won her first lottery when she was a freshman in college. Three months after her first win, she won another lottery. She won her third lottery two years later when she was a junior. She wants to stop buying tickets but cannot resist doing so as her winnings act as reinforcement for her buying behavior. In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following reinforcement schedules do the lottery winnings illustrate?

A) a variable-interval schedule
B) a variable-ratio schedule
C) a fixed-ratio schedule
D) a fixed-interval schedule

69) The schedules of reinforcement that yield the highest response rates are

A) variable-interval and fixed-interval schedules.
B) fixed-interval and variable-ratio schedules.
C) variable-ratio and fixed-ratio schedules.
D) fixed-ratio and variable-ratio schedules.

70) Typically, long pauses in responding are found in ________ schedules.

A) fixed-interval
B) fixed-ratio
C) variable-interval
D) variable-ratio

71) Which of the following statements is true of variable-interval schedules?

A) There are typically long pauses in responding after reinforcement is provided.
B) There are relatively short pauses in responding after reinforcement is provided.
C) Responding occurs at a high, but unsteady rate.
D) Responding occurs at a steady rate.

72) Emma is a video-game programmer. She writes the code for a game in which players are awarded five points every time they complete three tasks in the game. The players are also awarded five points at midnight every day. In the context of operant conditioning, the award of five points follows the ________ of reinforcement.

A) fixed-ratio and fixed-interval schedules
B) fixed-interval and variable-interval schedules
C) fixed-ratio and variable-ratio schedules
D) variable-interval and fixed-ratio schedules

73) A privately funded program pays low-income parents $50 every two months for each child who attends school regularly during that period. This incentive illustrates a ________ schedule of reinforcement.

A) fixed-interval
B) fixed-ratio
C) variable-interval
D) variable-ratio

74) A fixed-interval schedule is a schedule

A) by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made.
B) by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number.
C) that provides reinforcement for a response only if an unvarying time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low.
D) by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being constant.

75) Maggie works in a garment manufacturing company. For every three blouses she stitches, she is paid five dollars. Such a payment schedule is an example of a ________ of reinforcement.

A) fixed-ratio schedule
B) fixed-interval schedule
C) variable-ratio schedule
D) variable-interval schedule

76) Jamie plays an adventure video game in which a magic sword appears sometimes to help him score more points. The appearance of the sword is not dependent on Jamie's performance in the game. He does not know when the sword will appear, so he is always prepared to grab it. In the context of operant conditioning, the appearance of the magic sword illustrates a ________ of reinforcement.

A) fixed-ratio schedule
B) fixed-interval schedule
C) variable-ratio schedule
D) variable-interval schedule

77) Which of the following is TRUE about stimulus control training?

A) In stimulus control training, a behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus.
B) In stimulus control training, a behavior is reinforced in the absence of a specific stimulus.
C) Stimulus control training is the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
D) Stimulus control training is the process of teaching a simple behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

78) Ewan is convinced that a woman across the bar is "sending signals." A theorist who studies operant conditioning would term such signals

A) conditioned stimuli.
B) discriminative stimuli.
C) positive reinforcers.
D) intermittent reinforcers.

79) Behaving negatively toward all members of a racial group because one has had an unpleasant experience with one member of that group is an example of

A) extinction.
B) stimulus generalization.
C) spontaneous recovery.
D) stimulus discrimination.

80) Sheryl makes pleasant small talk and pays her boss a compliment before asking for a personal day because such a strategy was successful with a few of her previous bosses. This example most clearly illustrates

A) stimulus generalization.
B) stimulus control.
C) stimulus discrimination.
D) shaping.

81) The process of teaching a complex behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior is called

A) stimulus control training.
B) discrimination training.
C) shaping.
D) behavior modification.

82) Mrs. Martin, a third-grade teacher, is instructing cursive writing. At first, she reinforces even crude attempts to reproduce letters with an encouraging word; as time goes on, though, she reinforces only well-formed letters. By reinforcing progressively better attempts at writing letters, Mrs. Martin is using

A) discrimination training.
B) shaping.
C) stimulus control training.
D) behavior modification.

83) Which of the following is a similarity between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

A) both apply to involuntary behavior.
B) stimulus generalization occurs in both.
C) spontaneous recovery occurs in both.
D) both involve a stimulus and a natural response.

84) Which of the following types of learning applies to involuntary behavior?

A) operant conditioning
B) classical conditioning
C) observational learning
D) latent learning

85) Dr. Simonelli is a practicing behavior analyst. What does she do?

A) She helps clients explore the unconscious motivations behind their behaviors.
B) She helps clients change how they think about their own behavior and that of others.
C) She specializes in behavior modification techniques.
D) She conducts basic research into conditioning mechanisms and principles.

86) ________ is a technique for promoting the frequency of desirable conducts and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.

A) Functional modification
B) Genetic modification
C) Posttranslational modification
D) Behavior modification

87) When people start learning to drive a car, they already know the basic elements of driving from previous experience as passengers. It is likely that they have already noticed how the key is inserted into the ignition, the car is put in drive, and the gas pedal is pressed to make the car move forward. Acquiring knowledge of the basic elements of driving illustrates

A) latent learning.
B) classical conditioning.
C) operant conditioning.
D) spontaneous recovery.

88) The ________ is an approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning.

A) transformative learning theory
B) behavioral learning theory
C) cognitive learning theory
D) constructivism learning theory

89) Which of the following statements is true of psychologists working from the cognitive learning perspective?

A) They deny the importance of classical and operant conditioning.
B) They focus on the unseen mental processes that occur during learning.
C) They focus on positive and negative reinforcements.
D) They propose that people make responses because there is a biological link between a stimulus and a response.

90) According to the cognitive learning theory,

A) people develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer after making a response.
B) learning is unlikely to take place in the absence of external stimuli, responses, and reinforcements.
C) a behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus but not in its absence.
D) a new behavior cannot be learned until some incentive is provided.

91) According to classical conditioning, learning

A) is the unthinking, mechanical, and automatic acquisition of associations between stimuli and responses.
B) involves higher-order processes in which people's thoughts and memories account for their responses.
C) occurs on the presentation of reinforcements.
D) occurs on the presentation of punishments.

92) Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it is known as ________ learning.

A) tangential
B) latent
C) perceptual
D) spatial

93) Every Saturday, Adam takes the bus to the farmer's market to buy fresh produce. One Sunday, the bus service is disrupted, and he decides to drive. He is not sure he knows the route to the market. However, when he starts driving, he realizes that he knows the route from his weekly bus rides. In the context of cognitive learning, Adam's knowledge of the route to the farmer's market demonstrates

A) associative learning.
B) observational learning.
C) classical conditioning.
D) latent learning.

94) Identify a true statement about latent learning.

A) It does not require prior reinforcement.
B) It does not require an incentive.
C) It hinders the possibility of developing cognitive maps.
D) It is directly associated with fulfilling biological needs.

95) Recall Tolman and Honzik's latent learning experiments in which rats learned to run through a maze. Rats that began to receive an incentive halfway through the experiment rapidly matched the performance of rats that had been reinforced from the beginning of the experiment. According to cognitive learning theorists, the reduction in errors indicated that the former group of rats

A) were inherently smarter than the other rats in the experiment.
B) were able to observe and learn from the rats in the other group.
C) had developed a cognitive map of the maze.
D) had already participated in a similar experiment.

96) A(n) ________ is a mental representation of spatial locations and directions.

A) algorithm
B) prototype
C) cognitive map
D) perceptual blueprint

97) You have a kind of picture in your head of your hometown, a mental representation of its layout and the location of key landmarks, like rivers, buildings, freeways, and parks. This representation is called a(n)

A) internal navigator.
B) mental GPS.
C) cognitive map.
D) perceptual blueprint.

98) Learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model, is known as

A) perceptual learning.
B) observational learning.
C) latent learning.
D) tangential learning.

99) Albert Bandura's perspective on learning is referred to as a(n) ________ approach to learning because of its reliance on observation of others.

A) operant conditioning
B) social cognitive
C) latent
D) classical conditioning

100) Which of the following types of learning is most appropriate for acquiring skills that cannot be learned by using trial-and-error methods without grave cost?

A) observational learning
B) latent learning
C) classical conditioning
D) operant conditioning

101) Which of the following statements is true of observational learning?

A) It uses trial-and-error methods.
B) It is unlikely to occur for negative behaviors.
C) Observing the punishment of a model stops observers from learning the behavior.
D) Models who are rewarded for a behavior are more apt to be mimicked than are models who receive punishment.

102) Natasha is a 6-year-old girl who is afraid of dogs. However, when she notices her neighbors playing with their dogs, she wants to play with them too. She pets the dogs and soon plays with them. In the given scenario, Natasha exhibits

A) classical conditioning.
B) observational learning.
C) operant conditioning.
D) latent learning.

103) Viewing violent media

A) increases thoughts about aggression, but it does not affect behavior.
B) sensitizes people to violence.
C) lowers inhibitions against behaving aggressively.
D) makes people wary of violence.

104) Exposure to media violence

A) sensitizes people to violence.
B) predisposes people to view nonaggressive acts by others as aggressive.
C) increases people's sense of the pain and suffering brought about by aggression.
D) raises inhibitions against behaving aggressively.

105) On his way home from the mall, Adrian, a 16-year-old, witnesses a fight breaking out next to him. He is accidentally hit and suffers a minor injury. However, the person standing next to him is critically injured. In the context of observational learning, which of the following is most likely to happen in the next couple of years?

A) Adrian will ensure that he is never near a fight.
B) Adrian will commit violence.
C) Adrian will learn how to fight responsibly.
D) Adrian will put the incident behind him.

106) Travis is an intuitive thinker with a highly developed ability to remember verbal material, especially if it is highly relevant. Janet is detail-oriented, with an excellent memory for abstract material. She is not easily dissuaded by dull tasks. Which of the following statements best identifies the learning styles of these two individuals?

A) Travis has an analytical learning style. Janet's learning style is relational.
B) Travis has a relational learning style. Janet's learning style is analytical.
C) Both Travis and Janet have analytical learning styles.
D) Both Travis and Janet have relational learning styles.

107) Which of the following correctly pairs a learning style with one of its characteristics?

A) relational style and perceiving information as part of the total picture
B) relational style and focusing on detail
C) analytical style and displaying improvisational, intuitive thinking
D) analytical style and displaying good memory for relevant, verbal material

108) Which of the following is a characteristic of people with an analytical learning style?

A) They perceive information as part of the total picture.
B) They have a good memory for abstract ideas.
C) They show intuitive thinking.
D) They are easily guided by others.

109) Neal, an Asian-American student, would most likely

A) focus on detail.
B) have a good memory for verbally presented ideas and information.
C) learn materials that have a human, social content.
D) perceive information as part of total picture.

110) Those with an analytical learning style

A) first analyze the various components underlying an object or situation.
B) are easily influenced by others' opinions.
C) easily learn materials that have a human, social content.
D) have a good memory for verbally presented ideas and information.

111) Explain classical conditioning with a suitable example.

112) In the case of Pavlov and his dog, identify and describe the following: neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.

113) Making specific reference to such terms as UCS, CS, UCR, CR, and stimulus generalization, explain how classical conditioning may account for the development of a specific phobia.

114) Explain how classical conditioning hinders the treatment of drug addiction.

115) Explain the concept of extinction in classical conditioning.

116) What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

117) Briefly discuss stimulus generalization with an example.

118) Explain stimulus discrimination with an example.

119) How have psychologists challenged Pavlov's traditional account of classical conditioning?

120) Briefly discuss the concept of learned taste aversion.

121) Edward L. Thorndike formulated the law of effect after conducting an experiment on a cat in a puzzle box. Briefly describe the puzzle box that he used for the experiment.

122) Briefly discuss Edward L. Thorndike's law of effect.

123) Imagine that you are a parent, a teacher, or a supervisor in a workplace. Give specific examples of how you might use (a) positive reinforcement, (b) negative reinforcement, (c) positive punishment, and (d) negative punishment to bring about desirable changes in the behavior of a child, student, or subordinate worker.

124) What are the pros and cons of punishment?

125) Explain why reinforcement is more effective than punishment.

126) Compare the four schedules of intermittent reinforcement in operant conditioning. Discuss their impact on the response rate.

127) Draw on your knowledge of positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, schedules of reinforcement, stimulus control training, discriminative stimuli, shaping, and biological constraints on learning to describe how you might use operant conditioning to train domestic animals (e.g., dogs, cats, horses, etc.) to perform desired behaviors.

128) Identify a behavior of your own that you would like to perform more frequently (e.g., studying, completing household chores or yard work) or less frequently (e.g., snacking, smoking cigarettes). Outline a step-by-step behavior modification program that might help you achieve your goal.

129) How do the phenomena of latent and observational learning force a reconsideration of the view of learning offered by classical and operant conditioning theorists?

130) Briefly describe observational learning and Bandura's Bobo doll research. Discuss how this research altered conventional views of learning. What role might mirror neurons play in observational learning?

131) What is latent learning? Give an example of latent learning.

132) Observational learning research suggests that seeing others reinforced for particular behaviors may encourage our own acquisition of similar behaviors. To what extent is exposure to media violence associated with the acquisition of aggressive behavior?

133) To what extent does culture influence learning style? Distinguish between analytic and relational learning styles and suggest how they might vary across sociocultural groups. How might they reflect cross-cultural differences in parenting or teaching practices?