Test Bank

Chapter 8: Sociological Critical Theories and Integrated Theories

Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following is characteristic of mainstream criminology?

a. emphasis on criminalization of behavior

b. a consensus worldview

c. a willingness to question the established social order

d. an emphasis on praxis rather than objective analysis

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Mainstream Versus Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Medium

2. All of the following were identified as characteristics of mainstream criminology except ______.

a. an emphasis on criminal behavior rather than on the criminalization of behavior

b. a critical, cynical stance with respect to societal institutions

c. a strong pessimism regarding systems status quo

d. the advocation of rehabilitation of offenders

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Mainstream Versus Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Medium

3. ______ consists of a variety of perspectives that challenge basic assumptions of mainstream criminology.

a. Postmodern

b. Contemporary

c. Critical

d. Mainstream

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Mainstream Versus Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

4. All of the following statements pertaining to critical criminology are true except that ______.

a. crime is a label attached to behavior

b. more powerful groups in society control the labeling process to protect their vested interests

c. the consensus model rather than the conflict model explains the criminalization process

d. crime is often a rational response to inequitable conditions in capitalist societies

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Mainstream Versus Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Medium

5. On which concept is the labeling theory based?

a. capitalism

b. symbolic interaction

c. free will

d. empiricism

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

6. Which theory centers on the argument that individuals are deviant mainly because they have been identified as such by others?

a. radical criminology

b. feminist criminology

c. Marxist criminology

d. labeling theory

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

7. Which of the following theorists is associated with labeling theory?

a. Delbert Elliott

b. Edwin Lemert

c. Richard Quinney

d. William Chambliss

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Lemert’s Secondary Deviance

Difficulty Level: Easy

8. Which of the following terms is used by labeling theory to refer to an agent or official who is concerned with creating and labeling new categories of deviance?

a. bureaucrat

b. capitalist

c. moral entrepreneur

d. proletariat

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Lemert’s Secondary Deviance

Difficulty Level: Medium

9. In labeling theory, “secondary deviance” is used to refer to crimes that ______.

a. occur as the result of other social problems, such as poverty and racism

b. occur as a result of an individual having been caught and labeled

c. have traditionally been overlooked by criminologists

d. are nonviolent, such as theft and vandalism

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Lemert’s Secondary Deviance

Difficulty Level: Medium

10. ______ refers to the initial deviant act itself.

a. Primary deviance

b. Moral entrepreneur

c. Secondary deviance

d. Criminal definition

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Lemert’s Secondary Deviance

Difficulty Level: Easy

11. Which of the following is a valid critique of labeling theory?

a. It fails to address violent criminal activity.

b. It unquestioningly accepts official definitions of criminality.

c. It adopts a consensus view of deviance.

d. Its pays inadequate attention to the causes of the initial deviant act.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: A Critique of Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

12. All of the following were identified as criticisms of labeling theory by Bohm (1997) except that ______.

a. labeling is not a theory but a sensitizing concept

b. it does not explain primary deviance

c. it ignores individual difference among criminals

d. it has a complex view of the criminalization process

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: A Critique of Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

13. Which theorist argues that stigmatizing shaming of offenders makes matters worse and increases crime?

a. Jeffrey Reiman

b. George Vold

c. Delbert Elliott

d. John Braithwaite

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: John Braithwaite’s Shaming Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

14. Braithwaite’s shaming theory calls for which of the following?

a. incapacitative shaming

b. rehabilitative shaming

c. reintegrative shaming

d. stigmatizing shaming

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: John Braithwaite’s Shaming Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

15. Which theorist contributed a framework to describe the political nature of criminal law, and how pluralistic conflict shapes the role of law?

a. Jeffrey Reiman

b. John Braithwaite

c. Meda Chesney-Lind

d. Austin Turk

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.3: Summarize the basic elements of conflict criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: The Political Nature of Criminal Law: Austin Turk

Difficulty Level: Easy

16. All of the following, except ______, were identified by Austin Turk as propositions of the conflict perspective.

a. divergence leads to conflict

b. individuals that are similar in their understandings and commitments

c. human understanding and commitments are dialectical

d. each conflicting party tries to promote his or her own views

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.3: Summarize the basic elements of conflict criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: The Political Nature of Criminal Law: Austin Turk

Difficulty Level: Medium

17. Which area of thought by W. E. B. Du Bois often overlooked for his contributions to?

a. labeling theory

b. feminist criminology

c. conflict criminology

d. Marxist criminology

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.3: Summarize the basic elements of conflict criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Conflict Criminology and Race: W. E. B. Du Bois

Difficulty Level: Medium

18. Which of the following theorists is often referred to as “the founder of black criminology”?

a. William Chambliss

b. W.E.B. Du Bois

c. Freda Adler

d. Carl Klockars

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.3: Summarize the basic elements of conflict criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Conflict Criminology and Race: W. E. B. Du Bois

Difficulty Level: Easy

19. The dominance of criminological discourse by writers of European descent and the ignoring of works by those of African descent is referred to as the ______ bias.

a. androcentric

b. Eurocentric

c. angiocentric

d. American

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.3: Summarize the basic elements of conflict criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Conflict Criminology and Race: W. E. B. Du Bois

Difficulty Level: Easy

20. Which of the following theories concluded that every step toward economic and social justice is a step that moves us from a system of criminal justice to a system of criminal justice?

a. W. E. B. Du Bois

b. Jeffrey Reiman

c. Richard Quinney

d. William Chambliss

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.3: Summarize the basic elements of conflict criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Conflict Criminology and Race: W. E. B. Du Bois

Difficulty Level: Easy

21. ______ is an approach that takes the view that criminology has been biased and does not express the female viewpoint.

a. Peacemaking theory

b. Feminist criminology

c. Shaming theory

d. Critical criminology

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

22. “Androcentric bias” refers to the tendency to ______.

a. adopt the viewpoint of white European descendants, to the detriment of others

b. overemphasize the male experience, while overlooking the experience of females

c. overgeneralize the implications of a particular theory

d. use statistics taken from a group level to describe individual behavior

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

23. Which of the following refers to the proposal that female crime would increase as women assumed more assertive positions in society?

a. precipitation hypothesis

b. equalization thesis

c. liberation thesis

d. catharsis hypothesis

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Medium

24. What is the central theme for critical/radical feminists?

a. capitalism

b. patriarchy

c. political conflict

d. victimization

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

25. “Patriarchy” refers to a society in which ______.

a. women and men have equal status

b. political power is distributed based on wealth

c. capitalism represents the primary social institution

d. males hold a position of power and domination

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

26. Feminist criminology emphasizes all of the following perspectives except for ______.

a. Marxist

b. critical

c. interactionist

d. mainstream

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Medium

27. ______ feminism is the dominant approach today in feminist criminology.

a. Liberal

b. Radical

c. Critical

d. Socialist

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

28. Which of the following emphasizes affirmative action?

a. radical feminism

b. critical feminist

c. liberal feminism

d. socialist feminism

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

29. ______ sees capitalism and patriarchy as creating inequality and crime.

a. Radical feminism

b. Critical feminist

c. Liberal feminism

d. Socialist feminism

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

30. ______ views male aggression and control of female sexuality as the basis of patriarchy and the subordination of women.

a. Radical feminism

b. Critical feminist

c. Liberal feminism

d. Socialist feminism

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

31. New critical criminology includes all of the following perspectives except for ______.

a. left realism

b. peacemaking

c. postmodernism

d. feminist

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.5: Identify the emerging perspectives in new critical criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: New Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Medium

32. Which of the following is focused on translating radical ideas into realistic social policy?

a. feminist criminology

b. left realism

c. peacemaking

d. postmodernism

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.5: Identify the emerging perspectives in new critical criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Left Realism

Difficulty Level: Medium

33. Which of the following is considered a basic element of left realism?

a. transforms the police service into police force

b. marginalizes offenders

c. uses preemptive deterrence through citizen groups

d. makes maximum use of prisons

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.5: Identify the emerging perspectives in new critical criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Left Realism

Difficulty Level: Medium

34. Which of the following brings together criminology with a transcendental or religious approach as it seeks to mediate conflict, assist victims, and reintegrate offenders into the community?

a. feminist criminology

b. left realism

c. peacemaking

d. postmodernism

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.5: Identify the emerging perspectives in new critical criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Peacemaking

Difficulty Level: Medium

35. Which of the following approaches is known for examining how knowledge is constituted, the significance of language and signs, and how metaphors and concepts shape the context where crime occurs?

a. feminist criminology

b. left realism

c. peacemaking

d. postmodernism

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.5: Identify the emerging perspectives in new critical criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Postmodernism

Difficulty Level: Medium

36. Which of the following names capitalism and inequality as being at the root of crime?

a. feminist criminology

b. left realism

c. Marxist criminology

d. postmodernism

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.6: Describe radical criminology’s view on capitalism and crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Radical Marxist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Medium

37. Delbert Elliott’s integrative theory combined all of the following theories except for ______.

a. anomie

b. social process

c. social control

d. learning

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.7: Provide examples of how theories of crime can be integrated.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Delbert Elliott’s Integrative Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

38. According to Elliott’s study, which of the following theories was considered the most predictive?

a. social learning

b. social bonds

c. social process

d. social control

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.7: Provide examples of how theories of crime can be integrated.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Delbert Elliott’s Integrative Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

39. Which of the following theories attempts to combine social structure, social control, and social learning theories?

a. integrative theory

b. interactional theory

c. routine activities theory

d. social process theory

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.7: Provide examples of how theories of crime can be integrated.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Terence Thornberry’s Interactional Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

40. Criminal typologies are ways of classifying crimes and criminals that are ______.

a. undisputedly useful in helping us understand crime

b. useful in helping us make sense of crime, though this risks oversimplifying matters

c. useful in scientifically classifying crimes but have been recognized as poor tools for education

d. no longer used owing to their weaknesses

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.8: Describe the importance of crime typologies and the influence they have on criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Criminal Typologies

Difficulty Level: Easy

41. Schafer’s life trend typology of criminals includes all of the following except for ______ criminals.

a. occasional

b. born

c. abnormal

d. convictional

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.8: Describe the importance of crime typologies and the influence they have on criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Criminal Typologies

Difficulty Level: Medium

42. All of the following are characteristics of acute criminals except ______.

a. situational

b. neurotic

c. associational

d. accidental

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.8: Describe the importance of crime typologies and the influence they have on criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Criminal Typologies

Difficulty Level: Medium

43. All of the following were identified by Clinard and Quinney as types of criminal behavior except for ______ crime.

a. political

b. non-violent

c. conventional

d. professional

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.8: Describe the importance of crime typologies and the influence they have on criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Criminal Behavior Systems

Difficulty Level: Medium

44. A typology of crimes that looks at identification with crime, societal reaction, and group involvement are referred to as ______.

a. theoretical ranges

b. global fallacies

c. criminal behavior systems

d. dualistic fallacies

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.8: Describe the importance of crime typologies and the influence they have on criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Criminal Behavior Systems

Difficulty Level: Easy

45. Which of the following refers to the attempt to apply specific theoretical explanations to all types of crime?

a. dualistic fallacy

b. ecological fallacy

c. global fallacy

d. radicalist fallacy

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.9: Evaluate the limitations of theoretical range and criminological explanations.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: The Global Fallacy

Difficulty Level: Easy

True / False

1. Critical criminology is consistent with a consensus worldview.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Mainstream Versus Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

2. In mainstream criminology, the emphasis had been on the criminal rather than on the social control machinery.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Mainstream Versus Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

3. Critical criminology focuses more on the criminal behavior than on the criminalization of behavior.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Mainstream Versus Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

4. Critical criminology consists of a variety of perspectives that challenge basic assumptions of mainstream criminology.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Mainstream Versus Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

5. Critical criminologists see themselves as champions of the underdog and sometimes as prophets of a new social order.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Mainstream Versus Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

6. A major premise of critical theory is that it emphasizes economic, racial, and sexual inequality.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Mainstream Versus Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

7. Labeling theory holds that “deviance” is inherent in the act itself, rather than the reaction and label attached to the actor.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

8. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the subjective and interactional nature of human experiences.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

9. Labeling theory says that individuals are deviant mainly because they have been labeled as deviant by social control agencies and others.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

10. According to labeling theory, all acts are intrinsically criminally.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

11. The act of committing the crime begins the labeling process.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

12. Primary deviance refers to the initial deviant act itself.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Lemert’s Secondary Deviance

Difficulty Level: Easy

13. Deviance entrepreneurs are agents or officials who are concerned with creating and labeling new categories of deviance in order to expand the social control function of their organization.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Lemert’s Secondary Deviance

Difficulty Level: Easy

14. In his shaming theory, Braithwaite argues that increasing the stigmatization of offenders will be effective in deterring crime.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: John Braithwaite’s Shaming Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

15. According to shaming theory, offenders are made to feel humiliation owing to their transgressions.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: John Braithwaite’s Shaming Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

16. The pluralistic conflict approach assumes that different class, racial, ethnic, and subculturally distinct interest groups vie for political dominance.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.3: Summarize the basic elements of conflict criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Conflict Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

17. Austin Turk has been one of the more persistent advocates of conflict criminology.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.3: Summarize the basic elements of conflict criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Conflict Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

18. The androcentric bias refers to the dominance of criminological discourse by writers of European descent and the ignoring of works by those of African descent.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.3: Summarize the basic elements of conflict criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Conflict Criminology and Race: W. E. B. Du Bois

Difficulty Level: Easy

19. The liberation thesis claims that as women assumed more assertive positions in society, they would participate in more previously “masculine” activities including crime; however, little support has been found.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

20. Feminists criticize traditional criminology for its androcentric bias.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

21. Patriarchy refers to an economic-based hierarchy of power present in most capitalist societies.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

22. Meda Chesney-Lind gave voice to the study of female criminality, enhancing the status of such research.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

23. Feminist criminology comes in a variety of forms but shares in common the general theme that “malestream” approaches to criminology express a Eurocentric bias.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

24. Radical feminists argue that liberal feminists understated the role of patriarchy (male dominance) and its ability to continue to control and victimize women.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

25. Liberal feminism is the dominant approach today in feminist criminology.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

26. New critical criminology views the causes of crime owing to class, ethnic, and patriarchal relations endemic in society.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.5: Identify the emerging perspectives in new critical criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: New Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

27. Left realism is an approach that attempts to translate radical ideas into realistic social policy.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.5: Identify the emerging perspectives in new critical criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Left Realism

Difficulty Level: Easy

28. Left realists accept the reality of street crime and do not view it as a sort of revolutionary activity of the oppressed.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.5: Identify the emerging perspectives in new critical criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Left Realism

Difficulty Level: Easy

29. Programs such as restorative justice fit with the peacemaking theme.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.5: Identify the emerging perspectives in new critical criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Peacemaking

Difficulty Level: Easy

30. Radical “Marxist” criminology views crime as a result of socialism, with criminal law representing the interests of the ruling class.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.6: Describe radical criminology’s view on capitalism and crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Radical Marxist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

31. Marxist criminologists often reject the positivistic tradition of analyzing crime causation through objective and empirical analysis.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.6: Describe radical criminology’s view on capitalism and crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Radical Marxist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

32. Lee, Zang, and Hoover combined routine activities theory with social disorganization theory in profiling weapons used in domestic violence incidents.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.7: Provide examples of how theories of crime can be integrated.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Integrated Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Easy

33. Criminal typologies represent one of the oldest theoretical and practical approaches to crime.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.8: Describe the importance of crime typologies and the influence they have on criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Criminal Typologies

Difficulty Level: Easy

34. Theoretical range refers to the units of analysis and level of explanation that may be sought in a particular theory.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.9: Evaluate the limitations of theoretical range and criminological explanations.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Theoretical Range and Criminological Explanation

Difficulty Level: Easy

35. The global fallacy refers to the tendency to attempt to generalize relatively specific explanations to all types of crime.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.9: Evaluate the limitations of theoretical range and criminological explanations.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: The Global Fallacy

Difficulty Level: Easy

Short Answer

1. Identify the four characteristics of critical criminology.

• Crime is a label attached to behavior, usually that of the less powerful in society.
• More powerful groups in society control this labeling process to protect their vested interests.
• The conflict model rather than the consensus model explains the criminalization process.
• Crime is often a rational response to inequitable conditions in capitalistic societies.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Mainstream Versus Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

2. Identify Schrag’s basic assumptions of labeling theory.

• No act is intrinsically criminal.
• Criminal definitions are enforced in the interests of the powerful.
• A person does not become a criminal by violation of the law but only by the designation of criminality by authorities.
• Due to the fact that everyone both conforms and deviates, people should not be dichotomized into criminal and noncriminal categories.
• The act of getting caught begins the labeling process.
• Getting caught and decision-making in the criminal justice system are a function of the offender as opposed to offense characteristics.
• Age, socioeconomic class, and race are the major offender characteristics that establish patterns of differential criminal justice decision-making.
• Labeling is a process that eventually produces identification with a deviant image and subculture and a resulting “rejection of the rejecters.”

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

3. What is a moral entrepreneur?

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Lemert’s Secondary Deviance

Difficulty Level: Easy

4. Identify two criticisms of labeling theory.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: A Critique of Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

5. What does John Braithwaite’s shaming theory posit?

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: A Critique of Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

6. What is the Eurocentric bias?

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.3: Summarize the basic elements of conflict criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Conflict Criminology and Race: W. E. B. Du Bois

Difficulty Level: Easy

12. What is the liberation thesis?

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

7. What is the “generalizability problem” to which feminist criminologists call attention?

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

17. What is the global fallacy?

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.9: Evaluate the limitations of theoretical range and criminological explanations.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: The Global Fallacy

Difficulty Level: Easy

8. Within new critical criminology, what are the differences between left realism, peacemaking, and postmodernism?

KEY: Learning Objective: Various

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Various

Difficulty Level: Medium

Essay

1. Compare and contrast mainstream criminology and critical criminology. How are the two alike? How do they differ?

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Mainstream Versus Critical Criminology

Difficulty Level: Hard

2. Describe the difference between primary and secondary deviance, as developed by Lemert.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.2: Discuss labeling theory and the concept of secondary deviance.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Lemert’s Secondary Deviance

Difficulty Level: Medium

3. Describe three of the propositions that Quinney uses to describe the relationship between crime and the social order in The Social Reality of Crime.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.3: Summarize the basic elements of conflict criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Conflict Theory: William Chambliss and Richard Quinney

Difficulty Level: Medium

4. What did W. E. B. DuBois study in conflict criminology?

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.3: Summarize the basic elements of conflict criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Conflict Criminology and Race: W. E. B. Du Bois

Difficulty Level: Easy

5. Name one of the areas of study engaged in by feminist criminologists.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

6. Outline the main streams of thought in feminist criminology. What has each contributed to our understanding of crime?

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.4: Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Hard

7. Briefly describe peacemaking criminology.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.5: Identify the emerging perspectives in new critical criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Peacemaking

Difficulty Level: Easy

8. Outline the strengths and weaknesses of the use of crime typologies. Do you feel that such typologies are useful? Support your answer.

Some offenders exhibit great diversity, participating in more than one behavior system, or may in fact change their offense profiles.
No typology can contain purely homogeneous types.
The number of career criminals specializing in one type of offense is smaller than has been suggested by the typologies developed thus far (p. 354).
Some typologies attempt to make types of crimes and criminals more distinct from each other than they really are, thus oversimplifying reality (Conklin, 1972, p. 16).
No single typology is useful to group all offenders (Thomas & Hepburn, 1983, p. 262).
Typologies overemphasize unique aspects and minimize similarities among types (Thomas & Hepburn, 1983, p. 262).
Until an acceptable general theory is developed, it is desirable to delimit the specific areas to which a theory is applicable, to coordinate these theories, and to try to build a general theory. We need both general and specific theories and must avoid confusing the two. Typologies can have two purposes: 1) to be used as a scientific classificatory system, or 2) to be used as an educational tool.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.8: Describe the importance of crime typologies and the influence they have on criminology.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Criminal Typologies

Difficulty Level: Hard

9. Explain the idea of the “global fallacy.” Do you believe that there can be such a thing as a “general theory of crime?” Support your answer.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.9: Evaluate the limitations of theoretical range and criminological explanations.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: The Global Fallacy

Difficulty Level: Hard

10. What are the policy implications associated with labeling, conflict, feminist, and radical theories? What are the basic assumptions about crime and how would each policy address the crime problem? Are the policies pragmatic? Why or why not?

Conflict theory: argues that stigmatizing shaming of offenders makes matters worse and increases crime. Such a process makes the offender an irredeemable outlaw, irreconcilable with the community. In a sense, the person is made into a permanent persona non grata and has little choice but to associate with similarly stigmatized persons. Braithwaite calls for “reintegrative shaming,” efforts to reintegrate the offender back into the community of respectables.
Feminist theory: Crime is examined as it is related to gender-based inequality. Criminology expresses an androcentric bias and excludes women from their analysis. Emphasizing various perspectives including Marxist, interactionist, and critical theory, feminist writers view dominant empirical positivism as failing to include gender as a central force, blind to its ideological bias, and ignoring females. Their view is that much nonfeminist research is sexist owing to cultural beliefs and to a preponderance of perspectives that assume traditional gender roles. This bias expressed itself in the past, particularly on topics such as rape and domestic violence.
Radical theory: the crime problem could be resolved only by the establishment of a socialist state. The U.S. society is based on an advanced capitalist economy.
The state is organized to serve the interests of the dominant economic class, the capitalist ruling class.
Criminal law is an instrument of the state and the ruling class to maintain and perpetuate the existing social and economic order.
Crime control in capitalist society is accomplished through a variety of institutions and agencies established and administered by a governmental elite, representing ruling class interests, for the purpose of establishing domestic order.
The contradictions of advanced capitalism, the disjunction between existence and essence, require that the subordinate classes remain oppressed by whatever means necessary, especially through the coercion and violence of the legal system.
Only with the collapse of capitalist society and the creation of a new society based on socialist principles will there be a solution to the crime problem.

KEY: Learning Objective: 8.1: Compare and contrast critical and mainstream theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Various

Difficulty Level: Hard