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Chapter 4

The Reawakening of Intellectual Life

Chapter Objectives:

• Description of the triumph of the Papacy, and the definition of social standards through Christian ideals.
• The rise of the universities as outgrowth of monastic centers and cathedral schools; effectiveness of censorship.
• Intellectual stirring through the appeal to reason, in addition to faith: some scholarly examples.
• Review of the Scholasticism of Aquinas: dualism revisited.
• Reason challenges faith: the Renaissance, the Copernican Revolution, and the Reformation.

Chapter Summary:

The five centuries from 1000 to 1500 saw the consolidation and then the fractionation of Christianity and the decline of the papacy. The authority of the Church faced serious challenges. On a political level, the rising nation-states of Europe successfully competed with the papacy and undermined both the temporal and the spiritual powers of the Church. On an intellectual level, the teachings of Pierre Abélard, Roger Bacon, and Albertus Magnus led to a revival of interest in the ancient writers with their emphasis on rational thought to secure human knowledge. It was Thomas Aquinas who reconciled Aristotle's rationalism and Christian theology, which resulted in the Church's accepting both reason and faith as sources of human knowledge. On a cultural level, the Italian Renaissance lifted Europe into a new era of humanism that glorified humanity and shifted attention to the present needs and desires of people. Erasmus translated this humanistic attitude into scholarly pursuits that revealed the frailties and needs of the human authors of Scripture. All of these forces eroded the authority of the Church, leading to dramatic confrontation, both from inside and outside the Church. The Protestant Reformation took advantage of the rift between Christian monarchs and the papacy, successfully fragmenting the unity of Western Christendom. However, it was Copernicus who used the strategy and tools of reasoned arguments to arrive at his heliocentric theory of planetary motion. This bold assertion successfully demonstrated a truth arrived at through reason that differed from the conclusion supported by the authority of the Church. As a result, reason triumphed over faith, and the age of science was about to begin.

Suggested topics and issues for class discussion and/or short essay examination questions:

1. Describe the tensions between the papacy and the emerging national monarchies of the late medieval period.

2. How did the changes in the monastic movement, leading to the formation of the religious orders of Dominicans and Franciscans, help the intellectual climate of late medieval Europe?

3. Describe the systems of church censorship, especially in terms of Church control over intellectual inquiry.

4. Describe the complete absorption of psychology into religious belief and practice in the late medieval Europe. Was there any room for an independent discipline of psychology, separate from Church demands on human activities?

5. Describe the beginning of western European universities. How did the general curriculum of these institutions reflect Church control?

6. How did the universities add to the intellectual climate of the national states of Europe, and what were the negative aspects of these institutions?

7. Why was Abelard's argument with William of Champeaux, favoring Aristotle's view, of interest to Church authorities?

8. What was the significance of Abelard's method and goal of intellectual inquiry?

9. What was the justification of Roger Bacon's method of observations? Why was Bacon's empirical approach a major step in the foundation of modern science?

10. Describe the similarity in views between Roger Bacon and Albertus Magnus. What did the latter contribute to early empiricism by his exhaustive study of Aristotle?

11. What is meant by "empiricism" as a method of study?

12. What common assumptions did both Scholastic philosophy and early scientific empiricism accept?

13. Briefly describe Aquinas's adaptation of Aristotle's conception of human activity. Where did the various psychological functions fit within Aquinas's system?

14. What implications did Aquinas's faculties of the mind (or soul) have for the relation between sensory input and higher thought processes?

15. Does the empirical approach to scientific inquiry have a place within Aquinas's system? If so, what limitations are imposed upon an empirical approach, especially in light of Aquinas's proposal of mental categories?

16. What was the motivational element in Aquinas's psychology and how did it affect individual activity?

17. Describe how the advances of Scholasticism and early empiricism eroded papal authority, relative to the competition between faith and reason as the source of knowledge.

18. Briefly outline how the political turmoil of the Avignon papacy and subsequent schisms affected the hold over intellectual activity exercised by the Church.

19. How did the spirit of the Renaissance contribute to the eventual emergence of empirical science?

20. Might the course of the Renaissance have been different if Plato's philosophical view of people prevailed, and the Scholastic revival of Aristotle had not occurred?

1. What were the general forces contributing to the Protestant Reformation?

22. Why did Erasmus's notes on his translation of the New Testament cause such a shock to Church authorities?

23. How were Copernicus's views revolutionary?

24. Was Copernicus's argument on planetary motion based on logic, empiricism, or both?

25. Describe the vulnerability of the Church's position with respect to the Copernican system, after having accepted the philosophy and methods of Scholasticism.

Objective Questions:

1. The emergence of the national states of Europe

A. was a uniform development throughout the continent.

B. provided a rivalry with the papacy for power and revenues.

C. was helped by the reform of monasteries.

D. led mostly to new republics on the continent.

E. copies the governmental structures of the Islamic nations.

2. The new religious orders of Dominicans and Franciscans

A. were composed of ill-prepared, often illiterate monks.

B. preferred to work within the confines of monasteries.

C. preferred to work outside the confines of monasteries.

D. led to the counter-reformation.

E. attempted to halt the development of the universities.

3. The strict adherence to established Church doctrine and moral values was reinforced by the

A. bishops. B. universities. C. monasteries.

D. national monarchs. E. Inquisition.

4. The Inquisition was

A. forced on the European population by the papacy.

B. a reflection of European society of the period.

C. directed only at Jews and Moslems.

D. a mild form of censorship.

E. greatly unpopular among the peasants.

5. The medieval universities were

A. scholarly communities completely free of Church and civil control.

B. scholarly communities completely dependent on Church and civil control.

C. largely dominated by the theology faculties.

D. formed outside of Italy, away from papal control.

E. outgrowths of the monasteries.

6. Early in his career, Abelard championed the views that

A. universals are the only reality and individuals are only incidental, in agreement with Plato.

B. universals are mental abstractions to express individual reality, in agreement with Aristotle.

C. the Church is more than the sum of its members.

D. physical appearances are illusory.

E. individual persons are simply instances of universals.

7. Abelard was convinced that

A. faith and reason will reach the same conclusion through parallel directions.

B. reason as a source of truth is not possible.

C. Aristotle's teachings were inferior to those of Plato.

D. logical methods were far too limiting.

E. Heloise came from a nice family.

8. Roger Bacon's method of inquiry

A. was devoid of mathematical expression.

B. stressed empirical demonstration based upon observation.

C. was in opposition to the approach of Albertus Magnus.

D. was largely metaphysical.

E. search for universals and deemphasized particulars.

9. The scientific work of Albertus Magnus

A. was done within the confines of approved Church sources.

B. ignored observations of natural events.

C. relied on the teaching of Plato.

D. relied on the teachings of Aristotle.

E. used an approach opposite to that of Roger Bacon.

10. The psychology of Albertus Magnus

A. accepted Plato's doubt about the reliability of sensory data.

B. proposed a completely new form of dualism.

C. recognized the validity of faith alone to reach truth.

D. held that the person is determined by God's will.

E. extended Aristotle's dualism to Christian concepts.

11. Scholasticism was a philosophical system that

A. succeeded in admitting human reason as a source of truth.

B. was based entirely on faith as a source of truth.

C. revived interest in the teachings of Plato.

D. was condemned by the Church.

E. stifled intellectual activity in medieval Europe.

12. The dualism of Aquinas's psychology

A. was completely determined for each person by the grand design of God.

B. accepted Plato's view of the mind imprisoned in the body.

C. defined each person in terms of essence and existence.

D. placed mediation of sensory data within the will.

E. was based entirely on a spiritual level.

13. The five faculties of the soul, within Aquinas's system,

A. meant that all knowledge of the world was contained in the soul at birth.

B. meant that the soul was predisposed to acquire knowledge.

C. meant that the soul passively reacts to input from the environment.

D. defined human existence in the same way as for other animals in nature.

E. meant that the motivation of the organism was determined by God.

14. In Aquinas's system, human learning

A. depends exclusively on environmental input.

B. is unnecessary since all knowledge comes from God.

C. relies on sensory input, central mediation and coordination.

D. is confined to the higher levels of rationality.

E. is the product of particular sensory observations only.

15. In Aquinas's psychology, the will

A. is subordinate to human reason.

B. is a separate, but equal part of the intellect.

C. comprises the source of human motivation.

D. is completely determined by the will of God.

E. resides in the senses.

16. The major impact of Scholasticism

A. left the Church vulnerable to the products of human intellectual pursuit.

B. supported Church authority based upon faith.

C. reconciled Plato's teachings with those of the Church.

D. ultimately denied the need to study human psychology.

E. denied the existence of angels.

17. The decline of papal authority after the Avignon period

A. resulted from the ineffectiveness of the crusades.

B. was political and unrelated to the Church's acceptance of Scholasticism.

C. was immediate and complete.

D. was a result of the rivalry of the emerging nation states of Europe.

E. was halted by the election of a single pope.

18. The European Renaissance

A. produced a renewal of religious faith.

B. accepted the dictates of the Inquisition.

C. began in northern Germany.

D. was exclusively a movement in art.

E. shifted emphasis from religious to human themes.

19. After the European Renaissance, intellectual inquiry

A. was ignored in favor of artistic creations.

B. was completely free of Church control.

C. benefited from the elevation of human reason and revival of classical literature.

D. pursued metaphysical study at the expense of empirical methods.

E. remained static under complete Church control.

20. The challenge to Church authority by the Reformation

A. was motivated entirely by political considerations.

B. was motivated entirely by religious considerations.

C. failed.

D. was supported by post-Renaissance intellectual revival.

E. was caused by Luther's plea for greater reliance on human reason.

21. Erasmus's writings contributed to the Reformation by

A. pointing to the human basis of scripture.

B. defending the divine authorship of scripture.

C. his rejection of Scholasticism.

D. his defense of the divorce of King Henry VIII.

E. his piety and religious books.

22. The Roman Catholic Church's response to the Reformation

A. led to abandoning the Inquisition.

B. involved reconstruction of the Vatican.

C. led to the disbanding of the Jesuits.

D. permitted complete freedom of the universities.

E. led to internal reform and a counter-reformation.

23. Copernicus's views were based upon

A. a newly acquired empirical proof.

B. a simpler interpretation of existing data.

C. an acceptance of official church views.

D. his interpretation of the Bible.

E. his strong belief in faith over reason.

24. A major implication of Copernicus's successful proposal of a heliocentric universe was

A. the strengthening of Church power.

B. the abandonment of the Inquisition.

C. setting humans within the natural order of the universe.

D. the spread of the Reformation in Poland.

E. a greater emphasis on determination from God.

25. Post-Renaissance Europe was ready for

A. the reasserting of Church authority.

B. the acceptance of human reason as a source of knowledge.

C. acceptance of faith as the source of knowledge.

D. the rejection of Scholasticism.

E. an observational approach to metaphysics.