Ch5 Modern Science Emergence | Test Bank – 6th Ed

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Chapter 5

The Emergence of Modern Science

Chapter Objectives:

• Review post-Renaissance developments in science and the efficacy of the empirical methods.
• Challenge to censorship in the universities: The Learned Societies.
• Survey of psychology as it emerged from the Renaissance: The dualistic perspectives of Descartes and Spinoza.

Chapter Summary:

Two parallel trends prepared scholars for the investigation of the mind-body relationship so that a model of psychological inquiry could evolve. The first trend was methodological, characterized by the triumph of empiricism. Scientific innovations by Francis Bacon, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton were firmly based on careful observations and quantification of observables. Using inductive methods, moving from observed particulars to cautious generalization, empiricism stood in contrast to the deductive methods of the Scholastic philosophers. The second trend occurred in the attempt to develop conceptions on the nature of humanity and was more a philosophical enterprise. Spinoza taught that mind and body are manifestations of the same unity of the person. Human activity, while unique because of humanity's higher intellectual powers, is determined by the laws of nature. Descartes stated that the first principle of life is self-awareness of the idea, and all else that we know proceeds from self-reflection. His dualism of the interaction between mind and body distinguishes psychology from physiology. Descartes' views were developed in the French and British philosophical traditions; Spinoza influenced the German efforts to develop a model of psychology.

Suggested topics and issues for class discussion and/or short essay examination questions:

1. Why did the success of post-Renaissance empirical science provide a model for psychology to follow?

2. Contrast speculative and empirical methods of inquiry in light of deductive and inductive methods of logic.

3. In Francis Bacon's writings, what were the critical elements of scientific inquiry, and how did they reflect his interpretation of Aristotle, especially through Scholastic views?

4. What specific findings led Galileo to his views on both the universe and individual person?

5. Describe the teachings of Galileo and Kepler on primary and secondary qualities of natural events. Why is this distinction important for psychology?

6. Relate Newton's three laws of motion to his conceptualization of the universe.

7. What were the essential features of Newton's empirical approach to science?

8. Why did the advances in knowledge of physiology provide support for an empirical approach to psychology?

9. What were the "learned societies," why were they necessary, and how did they advance science?

10. What was the relationship between the "learned societies" and the universities?

11. The rise of post-Renaissance empiricism had a tremendous impact on philosophical preconceptions or assumptions about individual persons. What two trends in philosophy reflect the implications of the success of empiricism?

12. What were Spinoza's views on God, and how did his views affect his description of human activity?

13. Describe Spinoza's views on the mind-body relationship. What psychological functions were ascribed to each?

14. Describe motivation within Spinoza's psychology by elaborating on his notion of self-preservation.

15. What was the relationship between human emotions and reason within Spinoza's psychology, and with which early philosopher did Spinoza agree?

16. What was Descartes's "first principle" and why was its assertion a significant departure from previous approaches?

17. Where did God fit within Descartes's system?

18. Describe Descartes's views on the mind-body relationship. What psychological functions were ascribed to each?

19. How was the subject matter of psychology defined within Descartes's system?

20. Contrast the views of Spinoza and Descartes on the mind-body relationship. What kinds of implications for psychology may be drawn from each position?

Objective Questions:

1. Perhaps the major scientific event of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was the

A. founding of universities.

B. end of the Inquisition.

C. success of empiricism.

D. triumph of Scholasticism.

E. introduction of deductive methods.

2. The success of post-Renaissance empiricism

A. was based upon careful deduction.

B. provided a model for psychology to follow.

C. received strong support from the work of Copernicus.

D. was confined to Italian scientists.

E. was based upon speculative scientific approaches.

3. The scientific writings of Francis Bacon questioned the use of

A. a priori assumptions.

B. inductive methods.

C. observations.

D. laboratories.

E. Aristotle's entire logic.

4. Francis Bacon accepted the validity of scientific observations, if

A. deduction was carefully used.

B. the individual scientist was objective.

C. careful a priori assumptions were developed.

D. a consensus of scientists agreed about the observations.

E. they were appropriately related to metaphysics.

5. Galileo's confirmation of the Copernican system led him to

A. accept the Ptolemaic interpretation as fact.

B. win the approval of the Church.

C. believe in the accidental disorder of the universe.

D. downplay the use of mathematics.

E. believe in the orderly relations of nature.

6. Galileo's discussion of primary and secondary qualities included:

A. the belief that scientific advances would eventually allow mathematical expression of secondary qualities.

B. the belief that secondary qualities could never be expressed mathematically.

C. the view that primary qualities were part of individual, subjective experience.

D. the view that human activity was spontaneous and unpredictable.

E. the definition of secondary qualities as unchangeable and absolute.

7. The distinction between primary and secondary qualities, proposed by Galileo and Kepler,

A. allowed the acceptance of the essential unity of all intellectual activity.

B. defined primary qualities as relative, fluctuating and subjective.

C. defined secondary qualities as absolute, immutable and objective.

D. implied the need for a discipline of psychology, separate from the natural sciences.

E. led immediately to the study of psychology as a natural science.

8. Newton's mechanical conceptualization of the universe

A. was based upon speculative logic.

B. accepted the possibility of orderly, mechanical relations governing all of nature.

C. was at odds with the work of Kepler.

D. was the product of careful deduction after limited observation.

E. proposed dynamic, often spontaneous occurrences of events in the universe.

9. Newton's reasoning underlying his empirical work

A. was based upon the guiding logic of deduction.

B. suggested that causal explanations of observed events may go beyond the level of observations.

C. suggested that the same causes are responsible for the same observations.

D. suggested that human activity is governed by God's will.

E. left little room for systematic observation.

10. The advances in physiological knowledge

A. confirmed the benefits of empirical approaches.

B. indicated that the heart was the organ of human thinking.

C. indicated that the blood carried the spirits of life.

D. came from careful speculation.

E. were fully approved by the Church.

11. The circulation of the blood was explained by

A. Robert Boyle. B. William Harvey.

C. Anton van Leeuwenhoek. D. Marcello Malpigi.

E. Blaise Pascal.

12. Blood exchange between arteries and veins was discovered by

A. Robert Boyle. B. William Harvey.

C. Anton van Leeuwenhoek. D. Marcello Malpigi.

E. Blaise Pascal.

13. Statistical probability distributions were described by

A. Robert Boyle. B. William Harvey.

C. Anton van Leeuwenhoek. D. Marcello Malpigi.

E. Blaise Pascal.

14. The formation of learned societies of scientists was necessary because

A. the national governments wanted to consult scholarly associations.

B. the universities could not support laboratories.

C. the universities were controlled by governments and the Church, and did not readily accept empirical study.

D. scientists needed to form an underground against the Inquisition.

E. revolutions and religious wars closed most European universities.

15. The traditions of the learned societies

A. provided criteria for scientific value by a community of scientists.

B. provided a cooperating link between the Church and the universities.

C. continued to advocate secrecy in scientific research.

D. eventually merged with the universities.

E. were most open in Italy.

16. Despite the empirical advances in the natural sciences, psychology was not ready to pursue scientific study because

A. the Church would not allow it.

B. the learned societies were not convinced of psychology's importance.

C. the new understanding of physiology made psychology unnecessary.

D. observation of human activity was impossible.

E. of the problem of common agreement about the nature of human activity.

17. Spinoza argued that God

A. does not exist.

B. exerts personal direction over each individual life.

C. is known innately by the mind and allows us to sense the order of nature.

D. is impersonal and synonymous with nature.

E. is really in ourselves.

18. The mind-body relationship for Spinoza

A. is actually different aspects of the same unified substance.

B. is exactly as Plato defined it.

C. is a dualism characterized by psychophysical interaction.

D. does not exist.

E. is defined physically.

19. The major motivational aspect of Spinoza's psychology was based upon

A. striving for perfection.

B. human reason.

C. empirical studies of human behavior.

D. a biological predisposition toward self-preservation.

E. emotional desires.

20. A major implication of Spinoza's views left human activity determined by

A. God. B. human reason. C. natural laws.

D. individual desires. E. personal seeking of perfection.

21. Descartes argued that God

A. does not exist.

B. exerts personal direction over each life.

C. is known innately by the mind and allows us to sense the order of nature.

D. is impersonal and synonymous with nature.

E. is really in ourselves.

22. Descartes's first principle asserted that

A. God exists.

B. nature is ordered.

C. our senses are unreliable.

D. we learn the dimensions of time and space.

E. we have knowledge of ourselves.

23. The mind-body relationship for Descartes

A. is actually different aspects of the same unified substance.

B. is exactly as Plato defined it.

C. is a dualism characterized by psychophysical interaction.

D. does not exist.

E. is defined physically.

24. Descartes taught that human experience is derived

A. solely from sensory knowledge of the physical world.

B. from both a physical level and a spiritual level.

C. solely from the level of mental self-reflection.

D. from God and nature.

E. from social interactions.

25. As the first modern philosopher, Descartes defined psychology as

A. the study of the mind.

B. in terms of physiology.

C. the most important science.

D. an empirical science.

E. known only through self-reflection.