Full Test Bank Chapter.25 - Qualitative Data Analysis 6e

Chapter 25 - Qualitative data analysis

Test Bank

Type: true-false

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 01

01) Qualitative analysis is iterative, in that there is an interplay between collection and analysis of data.

a. True

b. False

Type: multiple response question

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 02

02) According to Ryan and Bernard (2003), when searching for themes we should look for what? Please select all that apply.

• Repetitions
• Indigenous typologies or categories
• Metaphors and analogies
• Transitions
• Similarities and differences
• Linguistic connectors

a. Metaphors and analogies

b. Transitions

c. Correlations

d. Linguistic connectors

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 03

03) Which of the following does not describe a theme?

• is a category identified by the analyst through his/her data;
• relates to the analyst’s research focus (and quite possibly the research questions);
• builds on codes identified in transcripts and/or field notes;
• provides the researcher with the basis for a theoretical understanding of his or her data that can make a theoretical contribution to the literature relating to the research focus.

a. A category identified by the analyst through his/her data

b. A statistically significant discovery

c. Relates to the analysts’ research focus

d. Provides the researcher with the basis of a theoretical understanding of his or her data to make a contribution to the literature

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 04

04) Which two authors developed Grounded Theory?

a. Atkinson and Hammersley

b. Potter and Weatherall

c. Glaser and Strauss

d. Bryman and Bell

Type: true-false

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 05

05) There is considerable controversy about what grounded theory is and what it entails.

a. True

b. False

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 06

06) Which of the following is not considered a tool of grounded theory?

• Theoretical sampling: see Key concept 18.3.
• Coding: the key process in grounded theory, whereby data are broken down into component parts, which are given names. It begins soon after the collection of initial data. As Charmaz (2000: 515) puts it: ‘We grounded theorists code our emerging data as we collect it…Unlike quantitative research that requires data to fit into preconceived standardized codes, the researcher’s interpretations of data shape his or her emergent codes in grounded theory’ (emphasis in original). In grounded theory, different types or levels of coding are recognized (see Key concept 24.4).
• Theoretical saturation: see Key concept 18.4. Theoretical saturation is a process that relates to two phases in grounded theory: the coding of data (implying that you reach a point where there is no further point in reviewing your data to see how well they fit with your concepts or categories) and the collection of data (implying that, once a concept or category has been developed, you may wish to continue collecting data to determine its nature and operation but then reach a point where new data are no longer illuminating the concept).
• Constant comparison: an aspect of grounded theory that was prominent in Glaser and Strauss (1967) and that is often referred to as a significant phase by practitioners, but that seems to be an implicit, rather than an explicit, element in more recent writings. Constant comparison refers to a process of maintaining a close connection between data and conceptualization, so that the correspondence between concepts and categories with their indicators is not lost. More specifically, attention to the procedure of constant comparison enjoins the researcher constantly to compare phenomena being coded under a certain category so that a theoretical elaboration of that category can begin to emerge. Glaser and Strauss advised writing a memo (see below) on the category after a few phenomena had been coded. It also entails being sensitive to contrasts between the categories that are emerging.

a. Theoretical sampling

b. Interpretive repertoires

c. Theoretical saturation

d. Constant comparison

Type: multiple response question

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 07

07) What are the outcomes of grounded theory? Please select all that apply.

• Concept(s)—refers to labels given to discrete phenomena; concepts are referred to as the ‘building blocks of theory’ (Strauss and Corbin 1998: 101). The value of concepts is determined by their usefulness or utility. One criterion for deciding whether a concept is useful is that a useful concept will typically be found frequently, and members of the organization under study will be able to recognize it and relate it to their experiences. Concepts are produced through open coding (see Key concept 24.4). Concepts can be recorded using concept cards (see Research in focus 24.5), through which incidents in the data can be recorded. An example of a concept card is provided in Figure 24.2.
• Category, categories—a concept that has been elaborated so that it is regarded as representing real-world phenomena. A category may subsume two or more concepts. As such, categories are at a higher level of abstraction than concepts. A category may become a core category around which the other categories pivot (see Key concept 24.4). The number of core categories may, in fact, be relatively few. For example, Martin and Turner (1986) give an example of one study in which from a large dataset and an initial 100 concepts, fewer than 40 of these proved to be very useful and only 10 provided the basis for the final analysis.
• Properties: attributes or aspects of a category.
• Hypotheses: initial hunches about relationships between concepts.
• Theory: according to Strauss and Corbin (1998: 22), ‘a set of well-developed categories . . . that are systematically related through statements of relationship to form a theoretical framework that explains some relevant social . . . or other phenomenon’. Since the inception of grounded theory, writings have pointed to two types or levels of theory: substantive theory and formal theory. The former relates to theory in a certain empirical instance or substantive area, such as occupational socialization. A formal theory is at a higher level of abstraction and has a wider range of applicability to several substantive areas, such as socialization in a number of spheres, suggesting that higher-level processes are at work. The generation of formal theory requires data collection in contrasting settings.

a. Concepts

b. Categories

c. Hypotheses

d. Principles

Type: true-false

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 08

08) Memos are notes that researchers might write for themselves or those with whom they work concerning elements of grounded theory such as coding or concepts.

a. True

b. False

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 09

09) Which of the following are not part of the classic grounded theory sequence of analysis?

1. Open coding, whereby preliminary concepts were identified (often based on in vivo language) from the data and grouped;
2. Axial coding, whereby connections between the emergent themes were detected and grouped into higher- order conceptual categories;
3. Themes deriving from the axial coding were themselves grouped into theoretically fertile dimensions.

a. Open coding

b. Axial coding

c. Indexical coding

d. Themes

Type: multiple response question

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 10

10) Which of the following are legitimate criticisms of grounded theory? Please select all that apply.

• Bulmer (1979) has questioned whether or not, as prescribed by the advocates of grounded theory, researchers can suspend their awareness of relevant theories or concepts until quite a late stage in the process of analysis. Business researchers are typically sensitive to the conceptual armoury of their disciplines, and it seems unlikely that this awareness can be put aside. Indeed, nowadays it is rarely accepted that theory- neutral observation is feasible. In other words, it is generally agreed that what we ‘see’ when we conduct research is conditioned by many factors, one of which is what we already know about the social world being studied (in terms both of social scientific conceptualizations and as members of society). Also, many writers might take the view that it is desirable that researchers are sensitive to existing conceptualizations, so that their investigations are focused and can build upon the work of others.
• Related to this first point is that, in many circumstances, researchers are required to spell out the possible implications of their planned investigation. For example, a lecturer making a bid for research funding or a student applying for funding for postgraduate research is usually required to demonstrate how his or her research will build upon what is already known or to demonstrate that he or she has a reasonably tightly defined research question, something that is also frequently disdained in grounded theory.
• There are practical difficulties with grounded theory. The time taken to transcribe audio recordings of inter- views, for example, can make it di cult for researchers, especially when they have tight deadlines, to carry out a genuine grounded theory analysis with its constant interplay of data collection and conceptualization.
• It is somewhat doubtful whether grounded theory in many instances really results in theory. As previously suggested, it provides a rigorous approach to the generation of concepts, but it is often di cult to see what theory, in the sense of an explanation of something, is being put forward. Moreover, in spite of the frequent lip service paid to the generation of formal theory, most grounded theories are substantive in character; in other words, they pertain to the specific social phenomenon being researched and not to a broader range of phenomena (though, of course, they may have such broader applicability).

a. Theory-neutral observations are not feasible

b. It is time-consuming

c. It is doubtful it results in the creation of theory

d. It lacks rigour and integrity

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 11

11) Which of the following is not a step or consideration in coding?

• Code as soon as possible. It is well worth coding as you go along, as grounded theory suggests. This may sharpen your understanding of your data and help with theoretical sampling. Also, it may help to alleviate the feeling of being swamped by your data, which may happen if you defer analysis entirely until the end of the data collection period. At the very least, you should ensure that, if your data collection involves recording interviews, you begin transcription at a relatively early stage.
• Read through your initial set of transcripts, field notes, documents, etc., without taking any notes or considering an interpretation; perhaps at the end jot down a few general notes about what struck you as especially interesting, important, or significant.
• Do it again. Read through your data again, but this time begin to make marginal notes about significant remarks or observations. Make as many as possible. Initially, they will be very basic—perhaps keywords used by your respondents, names that you give to themes in the data. When you do this you are coding— generating an index of terms that will help you to interpret and theorize in relation to your data.
• Review your codes. Begin to review your codes, possibly in relation to your transcripts. Are you using two or more words or phrases to describe the same phenomenon? If so, remove one of them. Do some of your codes relate to concepts and categories in the existing literature? If so, might it be sensible to use these instead? Can you see any connections between the codes? Is there some evidence that respondents believe that one thing tends to be associated with or caused by something else? If so, how do you characterize and therefore code these connections?

a. Code as soon as possible

b. Read through your initial set of transcripts, field notes and documents

c. Review your codes

d. Collect as much data as you possibly can

Type: multiple response question

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 12

12) Which of the following are legitimate criticisms of coding? Please select all that apply.

A second criticism of coding is that it results in a fragmentation of data, so that the narrative flow of what people say is lost (Coffey and Atkinson 1996). Marshall (1981) became concerned about the fragmentation of data that occurs as a result of coding themes when she came to analyse the data she had collected based on qualitative interviews with women managers.

a. Losing the context of what is said

b. Not as reliable as quantitative analysis

c. It results in the fragmentation of data

d. It is impossible to prove the veracity of the analysis

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 13

13) Which of the following is not a level of coding?

• The first level is basic or first-order coding. This involves identifying basic aspects of how the organizing happened. Examples include codes such as ‘changed plans’, ‘typical issues faced’, ‘support from non-local organizations’. Such coding primarily extracts and summarizes what the interviewee has said. It is therefore unlikely to get us very far analytically.
• A second level of coding comprises a deeper awareness of the content. This is achieved by recoding, comparing, consolidating, and re-grouping the codes to generate concepts. In the example above, basic codes such as ‘changed plans’ and ‘typical issues faced’ were grouped together under ‘decision-making factors’. Conversely, a single code, ‘organizing essentials’, was later split into two codes—‘funds required’ and ‘social capital’. Figure 25.1 shows the different codes generated through this process of regrouping and consolidation.
• A final level of coding moves even further away from close association with what the interviewee says, towards a concern with broad analytic themes. This involves asking questions about the properties and interconnections between codes. Through this it becomes possible to see codes and concepts as dimensions of a broader phenomenon. This level of coding enables second-order analysis, as the basis for generating theory inductively from the data (see Key concept 24.6 and Research in focus 24.5).

a. First order coding

b. Deeper awareness of the content

c. Complete analytical induction

d. Concern with broad analytical themes

Type: true-false

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 14

14) Meta-ethnography is a method used to achieve interpretative synthesis of qualitative research and other secondary sources.

a. True

b. False

Type: true-false

Title: Chapter 25 - Question 15

15) Unlike positivists, interpretative researchers are not concerned with developing an exhaustive list of studies that might be included in a review for a meta-ethnographical study.

a. True

b. False