Reasoning Test Bank Docx Ch8

Chapter 8 Reasoning

Multiple Choice

1. What is a characteristic of mathematical or scientific proof?

a. The support involves values and judgments.

b. A claim cannot be proven; it can only be supported.

c. The claims can be proved with certainty.

d. A claim can only be used by scientific experts.

Learning Objective: 8.1 Explain the nature of rhetorical proof in public speaking and identify its three components.

Topic: Proof, Support, and Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

2. Rhetorical proof consists of __________.

a. a claim, credibility, and common ground

b. reasons, rhetoric, and shared values

c. common values, beliefs, and judgments

d. a claim, supporting material, and reasoning

Learning Objective: 8.1 Explain the nature of rhetorical proof in public speaking and identify its three components.

Topic: Proof, Support, and Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Easy

Skill Level: Remember the Facts

3. Rhetorical proof is established by __________.

a. the interaction between the speaker’s and audience’s reasoning

b. the audience’s critical and active listening

c. the speaker’s use of claims

d. related supporting material

Learning Objective: 8.1 Explain the nature of rhetorical proof in public speaking and identify its three components.

Topic: Proof, Support, and Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Easy

Skill Level: Remember the Facts

4. The majority of the audience agreed with the speaker when she said property taxes were too high. In this situation, the proof is considered __________.

a. inconsistent

b. reasonable

c. an inference

d. irrelevant

Learning Objective: 8.1 Explain the nature of rhetorical proof in public speaking and identify its three components.

Topic: Proof, Support, and Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

5. In a rhetorical proof, the __________ is the statement that you want the audience to accept; it is what you are trying to prove.

a. claim

b. support

c. reasoning

d. thesis

Learning Objective: 8.1 Explain the nature of rhetorical proof in public speaking and identify its three components.

Topic: Proof, Support, and Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Easy

Skill Level: Remember the Facts

6. Shondra ended her speech by saying, “If we know that most Americans eat too much processed sugar, we can conclude that most Americans will have health issues.” What did Shondra use to link her supporting material to her claim?

a. a rhetorical question

b. an inference

c. a hypothetical example

d. an informational cascade

Learning Objective: 8.1 Explain the nature of rhetorical proof in public speaking and identify its three components.

Topic: Proof, Support, and Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

7. Sarah reasoned that (1) she had earned A’s in three previous English classes, and (2) past success predicts future success, so (3) she will likely get an A in her current English class. In this example of rhetorical proof, statement (1) is the __________.

a. supporting material

b. proof

c. attention getter

d. reasoning

Learning Objective: 8.1 Explain the nature of rhetorical proof in public speaking and identify its three components.

Topic: Proof, Support, and Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

8. If a case is inferred to be typical and there is nothing unusual about it, the case is referred to as a(n) __________.

a. extended example

b. false example

c. aggregate example

d. representative example

Learning Objective: 8.2 Explain the various types of examples and what can be inferred from them.

Topic: Example

Difficulty Level: Easy

Skill Level: Remember the Facts

9. During his speech, Karl claimed that the elderly are bad drivers. He supported this claim by pointing out that his 75-year-old grandfather had three accidents this year and an 86-year-old woman ran into a building at the mall after hitting the gas instead of the brake. Karl is using reasoning by __________.

a. example

b. sign

c. analogy

d. narrative

Learning Objective: 8.2 Explain the various types of examples and what can be inferred from them.

Topic: Example

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

10. Jesse argues in his speech that drug use really is not a problem among teens because hardly anyone he knows has even tried drugs. Jesse uses his friends as examples, but this reasoning by example fails because the examples are __________.

a. not representative

b. analogous

c. hypothetical

d. not factual

Learning Objective: 8.2 Explain the various types of examples and what can be inferred from them.

Topic: Example

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

11. Statistics are a form of __________ examples.

a. individual

b. aggregate

c. hypothetical

d. brief

Learning Objective: 8.2 Explain the various types of examples and what can be inferred from them.

Topic: Example

Difficulty Level: Easy

Skill Level: Remember the Facts

12. While the speaker sounded convincing when he said that everyone should have a shingles vaccine, Jennifer remained skeptical. Her doctor had told her the vaccine was only necessary for those over a certain age or those with immune disorders. The flaw detected by Jennifer is known as a(n) __________.

a. fallacy

b. hypothetical

c. aggregate

d. proof

Learning Objective: 8.2 Explain the various types of examples and what can be inferred from them.

Topic: Example

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

13. Reasoning by comparing people, places, things, and events that are familiar to the audience to those that are unfamiliar to them is reasoning by __________.

a. analogy

b. cause

c. example

d. testimony

Learning Objective: 8.3 Define analogy, including literal and figurative analogies, and illustrate how to reason through analogy.

Topic: Analogy

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

14. What are the two types of analogy?

a. division and composition

b. metaphor and simile

c. literary and oral

d. literal and figurative

Learning Objective: 8.3 Define analogy, including literal and figurative analogies, and illustrate how to reason through analogy.

Topic: Analogy

Difficulty Level: Easy

Skill Level: Remember the Facts

15. In a speech for restricting alcohol sales, Narna argues that the United States would have fewer deaths related to alcohol if it made it harder to purchase because India has few alcohol-related deaths and more restrictions on purchases. What type of reasoning is Narna using?

a. example

b. analogy

c. testimony

d. cause

Learning Objective: 8.3 Define analogy, including literal and figurative analogies, and illustrate how to reason through analogy.

Topic: Analogy

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

16. Renata told her listeners, “Cardinals and robins will soon be as scarce as blackbirds because of the pollutants we are sending into their air.” She is using a(n) __________ to make a point.

a. hypothetical

b. aggregate statistic

c. fallacy

d. literal analogy

Learning Objective: 8.3 Define analogy, including literal and figurative analogies, and illustrate how to reason through analogy.

Topic: Analogy

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

17. Jimmy argues the fact that major-league athletes are bigger, stronger, and faster than they were 20 years ago is an indicator that steroid use among these athletes has increased. What type of reasoning is this?

a. analogy

b. testimony

c. sign

d. narrative

Learning Objective: 8.4 Define signs, identify the several types of signs, and discuss how to reason through signs.

Topic: Signs

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

18. What is an example of reasoning by sign?

a. Gathering clouds and increased winds indicate that a storm is approaching.

b. A Surgeon General’s warning indicates that smoking is harmful to your health.

c. Three straight playoff losses indicate that a team is unsuccessful in the postseason.

d. Inspiring stories of Michael Jordan, Bill Clinton, and Ross Perot indicate that even a person with a modest upbringing can be successful in America.

Learning Objective: 8.4 Define signs, identify the several types of signs, and discuss how to reason through signs.

Topic: Signs

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

19. Reasoning by sign occurs when a speaker __________.

a. uses specific instances to infer a general conclusion

b. shows that when one thing stands for another, one can infer the existence of what it stands for

c. infers that facts or opinions from a reliable source are accurate and trustworthy

d. uses a powerful story to lead the audience to the conclusion one wants to support

Learning Objective: 8.4 Define signs, identify the several types of signs, and discuss how to reason through signs.

Topic: Signs

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

20. The singing of “Take Me Out to the Ballgame” during the seventh-inning stretch of every Cubs game is an example of a(n) __________.

a. figurative analogy

b. aggregate example

c. institutional regularity

d. statistical index

Learning Objective: 8.4 Define signs, identify the several types of signs, and discuss how to reason through signs.

Topic: Signs

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

21. Meredith told her group that she realized many of them were getting hungry since the line to the buffet was long. What type of inference did Meredith use?

a. institutional regularity

b. hypothetical question

c. statistical index

d. physical observation

Learning Objective: 8.4 Define signs, identify the several types of signs, and discuss how to reason through signs.

Topic: Signs

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

22. When Jerry argued that the rise in teen pregnancy over the past twenty years is a direct result of sex education in the primary schools, he was using what type of causal reasoning?

a. assignment of responsibility

b. explanation

c. common cause

d. steps to a goal

Learning Objective: 8.5 Explain how causal inferences relate causes to effect.

Topic: Cause

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

23. Reasoning by cause proceeds by __________.

a. using specific instances to infer a general conclusion

b. showing how one thing influences or brings about another

c. inferring that facts or opinions from a reliable source are accurate and trustworthy

d. using a powerful story to lead the audience to the conclusion one wants to support

Learning Objective: 8.5 Explain how causal inferences relate causes to effect.

Topic: Cause

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

24. Michael argued that if guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have guns. What kind of reasoning is this?

a. example

b. cause

c. analogy

d. narrative

Learning Objective: 8.5 Explain how causal inferences relate causes to effect.

Topic: Cause

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

25. Sanjay believed that families living in the Chicago suburbs had healthier teeth than those living in rural Mississippi because there were more dental offices in Chicago. His research showed him that the real cause was a difference in diet between the two regions. This is an example of a(n) __________.

a. alternate cause fallacy

b. literal analogy

c. figurative analogy

d. post hoc fallacy

Learning Objective: 8.5 Explain how causal inferences relate causes to effect.

Topic: Cause

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

26. A speaker should not assume that just because one event occurred following an earlier event that it was caused by the earlier event. This is known as a(n) __________.

a. alternate cause fallacy

b. institutional regularity

c. post hoc fallacy

d. figurative analogy

Learning Objective: 8.5 Explain how causal inferences relate causes to effect.

Topic: Cause

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

27. When you rely on the information or opinions of others to support your claims, you are using reasoning by __________.

a. cause

b. fallacy

c. analogy

d. testimony

Learning Objective: 8.6 Explain how inferences can be drawn from testimony and identify the types of such inferences.

Topic: Testimony

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

28. Sumiko asked the university chancellor her opinion about rising crime rates on campus and quoted her remarks in her speech to the class. Sumiko is using inference from __________.

a. cause

b. testimony

c. sign

d. fallacy

Learning Objective: 8.6 Explain how inferences can be drawn from testimony and identify the types of such inferences.

Topic: Testimony

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

29. What is lay testimony?

a. factual testimony that can be verified

b. another name for opinion testimony

c. expert testimony that has been paraphrased

d. testimony from someone who is not an expert

Learning Objective: 8.6 Explain how inferences can be drawn from testimony and identify the types of such inferences.

Topic: Testimony

Difficulty Level: Easy

Skill Level: Remember the Facts

30. Shaleen wanted to show that subtle racism exists on her campus, so she interviewed a number of students about incidents of discrimination they had experienced. She shared their remarks with her classmates during her speech. What was Shaleen using in support of her claim?

a. analogies

b. signs

c. lay testimony

d. expert testimony

Learning Objective: 8.6 Explain how inferences can be drawn from testimony and identify the types of such inferences.

Topic: Testimony

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

31. Speakers are said to pontificate when they __________.

a. offer judgments without any basis

b. paraphrase remarks as proof

c. assume one thing causes another

d. rely on lay testimony

Learning Objective: 8.6 Explain how inferences can be drawn from testimony and identify the types of such inferences.

Topic: Testimony

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

32. What qualities are essential when reasoning by narrative?

a. resonance, plausibility, coherence

b. consistency, fidelity, truthfulness

c. personal, coherent, organized

d. credibility, plausibility, intelligibility

Learning Objective: 8.7 Explain the forms that narratives take in speeches, how they are used, and the tests for inference for narrative.

Topic: Narrative

Difficulty Level: Easy

Skill Level: Remember the Facts

33. What type of inference is a speaker relying on when he or she tells a story to explain an event?

a. cause

b. narrative

c. fallacy

d. testimony

Learning Objective: 8.7 Explain the forms that narratives take in speeches, how they are used, and the tests for inference for narrative.

Topic: Narrative

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

34. Because a narrative works like an extended example, what should be used to test its inference?

a. plot

b. representativeness

c. explicitness of the moral

d. personalization

Learning Objective: 8.7 Explain the forms that narratives take in speeches, how they are used, and the tests for inference for narrative.

Topic: Narrative

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

35. While Kylie found the speaker’s story funny, it didn’t relate at all to how she felt about rising costs at the grocery store. Kylie feels that the story lacked __________.

a. resonance

b. credibility

c. testimony

d. diligence

Learning Objective: 8.7 Explain the forms that narratives take in speeches, how they are used, and the tests for inference for narrative.

Topic: Narrative

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

36. Jeremy’s speech included the following statement: “Abstinence is the only way to have safe sex because by not having sex you are safe.” Which error in reasoning did Jeremy commit?

a. non sequitur

b. post hoc reasoning

c. circular argument

d. ignoring the question

Learning Objective: 8.8 Define what a fallacy is, and identify both general fallacies and fallacies that correspond to particular patterns of reasoning.

Topic: Avoiding Errors in Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

37. Which fallacy is committed when the claim and the supporting material are unrelated to each other?

a. non sequitur

b. post hoc reasoning

c. circular argument

d. ignoring the question

Learning Objective: 8.8 Define what a fallacy is, and identify both general fallacies and fallacies that correspond to particular patterns of reasoning.

Topic: Avoiding Errors in Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

38. What did Karla mean when she said the language of Jessie’s speech was equivocal?

a. It was meaningless.

b. It was based on fact.

c. It was based on opinion.

d. It had multiple meanings.

Learning Objective: 8.8 Define what a fallacy is, and identify both general fallacies and fallacies that correspond to particular patterns of reasoning.

Topic: Avoiding Errors in Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

39. The spokesperson for the politician didn’t want to bring attention to his recent lawsuit so she told the crowd of journalists that the politician intended to vote against the upcoming tax hike. This type of inference is known as a(n) __________.

a. figurative analogy

b. rhetorical question

c. red herring

d. lay testimony

Learning Objective: 8.8 Define what a fallacy is, and identify both general fallacies and fallacies that correspond to particular patterns of reasoning.

Topic: Avoiding Errors in Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

40. What should you do if the audience provides negative feedback on your inferences during the speech?

a. Move quickly to the next point.

b. Modify your speech as you are delivering it to support the inferences.

c. Make a mental note of it and strengthen that point in future speeches.

d. Remove the controversial point from your conclusion.

Learning Objective: 8.9 Explain how an understanding of reasoning processes helps in preparing and delivering a speech and in being an active, critical listener.

Topic: Reasoning in Public Speaking

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

Essay Questions

41. What is a unit of proof? What are its three components, and how are they related to each other? What are the five aspects of rhetorical proof?

• Any idea is a unit of proof. It consists of a claim, supporting material, and reasoning. The supporting material is linked to the claim through reasoning.
• The five aspects of rhetorical proof are:
  • Reasoning is crucial in linking support to claim.
  • Reasoning is inferential, and inferences may be wrong.
  • Inferences are often in the form of implicit statements.
  • Speakers and listeners decide together whether inferences are sound.
  • Nothing guarantees that inferences are correct, but tests exist to distinguish good inferences from bad inferences.

Learning Objective: 8.1 Explain the nature of rhetorical proof in public speaking and identify its three components.

Topic: Proof, Support, and Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Difficult

Skill Level: Analyze It

42. Describe an informational cascade. How does it occur? What effect does it create?

• Speakers must be careful not to confuse the acceptance of an idea by many people as being the same as solid rhetorical proof.
• The advent of social media has enhanced the probability that a claim will be amplified rapidly, repeated by many people, and will be enough to convince others that it is true.
• This is known as informational cascade.
• A speaker must remember that there is a tendency for an audience to believe that a claim is true just because someone else says it is.

Learning Objective: 8.1 Explain the nature of rhetorical proof in public speaking and identify its three components.

Topic: Proof, Support, and Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

43. What are the different types of examples? Describe how each might be used appropriately.

• The different types of examples are (1) individual, (2) aggregate, (3) factual, (4) hypothetical, (5) brief, and (6) extended.
• Individual examples can personalize an issue.
• Aggregate statistical examples are more convincing when issues are of broader scope and diversity.
• Factual examples provide verifiable instances.
• Hypothetical examples can condense an abstract issue into a single vivid illustration.
• Brief examples help show the number of cases, when the focus on details isn’t as important as numbers.
• Extended examples provide more details that can impact the listeners in a more personal way.

Learning Objective: 8.2 Explain the various types of examples and what can be inferred from them.

Topic: Example

Difficulty Level: Difficult

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

44. Discuss four questions a speaker should ask when using inference from example to support a claim.

• Are there enough examples? If the number of examples is too small it may not be sufficient to reflect the features of the significant population.
• Do the examples represent the whole category? If all cited cases are similar in most ways, it will weaken the speaker’s overall argument.
• Are the examples ambiguous? At times a single example might support different inferences that weaken the example. The audience wonders which claim to believe.
• Are the examples fallacious? Fallacies occur when an inference appears sound but upon inspection it contains a significant flaw. This is an obvious weakening of the example.

Learning Objective: 8.2 Explain the various types of examples and what can be inferred from them.

Topic: Example

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

45. What is reasoning by analogy? What are the two types of analogies? Give examples of each and show how those examples reflect the type of inference made when using analogies.

• Analogies are comparisons of the known and the unknown.
• Literal analogies make direct comparisons, while figurative analogies compare relationships.
• A literal example might be “tax breaks in California will work as they do in New Mexico,” and a figurative example might be “counting exclusively on social security for retirement security is like gambling all your money at the roulette table.” The ideal answer will show a clear distinction in the use of figurative and literal analogies.
• Student examples will vary.

Learning Objective: 8.3 Define analogy, including literal and figurative analogies, and illustrate how to reason through analogy.

Topic: Analogy

Difficulty Level: Difficult

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

46. Discuss some actions speakers can take when reasoning through an analogy.

• Avoid analogies that are trite or far-fetched.
• Analyze what you are comparing.
• Use analogies sparingly.
• Use analogies sensitively.
• Avoid analogies that are too complex or nuanced.

Learning Objective: 8.3 Define analogy, including literal and figurative analogies, and illustrate how to reason through analogy.

Topic: Analogy

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

47. What are the three types of inference from signs? Provide an example of each.

• A physical observation is something that is observed directly by a person. If you see a car on the side of the road with the hood up, you can infer that the car has broken down.
• A statistical index is a way to portray an abstract concept, such as low interest rates leading to increased home sales.
• Institutional regularity is an observable pattern that results from social convention. In some rural communities, when you hear the fire station siren in the middle of the day, you know it is noon and time to stop work and eat lunch.
• Student examples will vary.

Learning Objective: 8.4 Define signs, identify the several types of signs, and discuss how to reason through signs.

Topic: Signs

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

48. What are the four types of uses a speaker can make of the inference from cause?

• Prediction: some causal inferences explain changes by predicting what leads to what.
• Assignment or responsibility: causal inferences can tell why something occurred.
• Explanation: causal inference can be used to explain something that doesn’t make sense.
• Steps to a goal: a causal inference can relate the means to the ends, such as when the speaker knows the goal and wants to figure out the best way to get to it.

Learning Objective: 8.5 Explain how causal inferences relate causes to effect.

Topic: Cause

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Understand the Concepts

49. What are the strategies and tests of reasoning by narrative? Provide an example of a strong and weak narrative.

• Narratives must be personalized and representative.
• They must have characters, a plot, conflict resolution, and an ending with a moral.
• To be effective, narratives should be coherent, plausible, and consistent and should resonate with listeners.
• The answer should include a short description of a speech topic and two detailed examples of narratives, one lacking the elements above and one including them.
• Student examples will vary.

Learning Objective: 8.7 Explain the forms that narratives take in speeches, how they are used, and the tests for inference for narrative.

Topic: Narrative

Difficulty Level: Moderate

Skill Level: Apply What You Know

50. Identify and define the six general fallacies. Discuss how the presence of fallacies affects the overall quality of a speech.

• The six general fallacies and the definition of each:
  • Non sequitur: the claim does not follow from the evidence.
  • Circular argument: the evidence merely repeats the claim.
  • Ignoring the question: the claim being made is not relevant to the issue.
  • Equivocation: the claim is vague or ambiguous.
  • Mistaking probability for certainty: the claim has been overstated from the evidence.
  • Inappropriate emotional response: the speaker overreacts (or underreacts).
• A fallacy is an unjustified inference, and the answer should explore how such an error would influence the audience. It may be, for example, that its impact on the quality of the speech depends on how central the point is to the thesis.

Learning Objective: 8.8 Define what a fallacy is, and identify both general fallacies and fallacies that correspond to particular patterns of reasoning.

Topic: Avoiding Errors in Reasoning

Difficulty Level: Difficult

Skill Level: Analyze It