Full Test Bank 1e Crowds And Collective Behaviour Ch.14

Chapter 14

Crowds and Collective Behaviour

1. How does collective behaviour differ from social facilitation and the social pressures that produce conformity, compliance and obedience?

a. it occurs in the absence of pre-existing group norms

b. there is no direct pressure on individuals to behave in a collective manner

c. there are no leaders or systems demanding obedience

d. it depends on the suggestibility of a large number of people

e. a, b and c

2. Collective behaviour is:

a. large scale behaviour that is institutionalized

b. behaviour on a large scale that is governed by appropriate social norms

c. behaviour by a collection of people which is spontaneous, unorganized and lacking strong leadership, and which is the product of interstimulation among the participants

d. behaviour induced by the mere presence of others

e. any action carried out by a person or persons as a result of pressure from other people or groups

3. Which of the following is a characteristic of collective behaviour?

a. it is relatively unorganized

b. it emerges spontaneously

c. there are strong pre-existing group norms

d. both a and b

e. all of the above

4. Which of the following is true about collective behaviour?

a. it sometimes involves the intensification of reactions that were already anticipated

b. the interstimulation of members of the collectivity has to be reinforcing to some extent

c. it is rather rare

d. all of the above

e. none of the above

5. It would not be correct to describe the behaviour of people queuing for a bus as a collective behaviour because:

a. it is not large enough

b. it is governed by appropriate social norms

c. it does not have a clear leader motivating the action

d. interstimulation is absent among the participants

e. it is unplanned in the course of its development

6. The Arab Spring demonstrations in Egypt and elsewhere was collective behaviour amplified by:

a. repressive governments

b. religious rituals

c. communication among people at the events

d. communication through social media

e. the season of springtime

7. Collective behaviour has not been the topic of much empirical investigation by social psychologists. Which of the following is a reason for the lack of social psychological data on this topic?

a. it is not really a social psychological phenomenon

b. there are ethical problems in studying collective behaviour in a laboratory setting

c. it is difficult to implement laboratory studies of collective behaviour

d. it is difficult to isolate and measure the relevant variables in field studies of collective behaviour

e. b c and d

8. Why is it difficult to study real-life collective behaviour?

a. people are likely going to detect our intentions and refuse to display the behaviour

b. the behaviour is usually underway before we would have time to prepare for studying it

c. it is difficult to isolate and measure the relevant variables

d. both a and b

e. both b and c

9. Interest in the study of collective behaviour was stimulated by:

a. Milgram

b. Brown

c. Le Bon

d. McGuire

e. Latané

10. A relatively large collection of people who are unorganized, anonymous, casual, and temporary is known as:

a. a crowd

b. an audience

c. a mob

d. a transient group

e. an aggregate

11. Milgram and Toch define characteristics of collective behaviour. Which of the following is NOT one of them?

a. relatively rare

b. emerges spontaneously

c. unplanned and relatively unorganized

d. energize by interstimulation among participants

e. lots and lots of people

12. The subjective feeling of discomfort caused by a perception that there are ‘too many people’ around is known as:

a. density

b. sensory overload

c. crowding

d. population explosion

e. social exposure

13. Crowding refers to:

a. the subjective feeling of discomfort resulting from the perception that there are too many people around

b. excessive stimulation and information

c. the concentration of people per given area

d. the objective number of people in a given area

e. the intensity of social experience

14. Research which equates sheer population density with high rates of crime and mental illness is sometimes referred to as:

a. the density/intensity hypothesis

b. the ‘Behavioural Sink’

c. Calhoun's syndrome

d. the crowding–aggression theory

e. the social-pathology hypothesis

15. In the ‘Behavioural Sink’ study in which a colony of 48 rats was allowed to increase its population to 80 within the same space, it was found that the rats:

a. exhibited abnormal mating behaviour

b. showed signs of severe stress

c. were on the verge of starving within a very short time

d. both a and b

e. all of the above

16. Which view of crowding suggests that people are more likely to avoid eye contact and notice less of what is going on?

a. the social-pathology hypothesis

b. density–intensity

c. loss of control

d. Behavioural Sink

e. sensory overload

17. According to the __________ hypothesis, crowding is one situation which involves too much actual or potential interaction, excessive physical proximity, and too many people doing too much to pay attention to it all.

a. density–intensity

b. loss of control

c. social-pathology

d. sensory overload

e. Behavioural Sink

18. People who feel crowded experience arousal and then explain that arousal by the crowded situation. Which theory is this explanation about?

a. density–intensity

b. behavioural sink

c. attribution

d. loss of control

e. sensory overload

19. Being in crowded situation can be pleasant or unpleasant depending on factors such as:

a. whether we feel overwhelmed by sensory stimulation

b. whether we would normally find a similar situation pleasant or unpleasant

c. whether we feel free to leave the situation

d. how we interpret the arousal that we feel by being crowded

e. any or all of the above

20. We do not feel crowded at a rock concert even though there are thousands of other people because we are free to stay or leave. This explanation is best accounted for by the __________ hypothesis.

a. control

b. density–intensity

c. sensory overload

d. haptics

e. none of the above

21. According to Le Bon (1895), a number of factors contribute to the development of a ‘collective mind’, a concept from which the contagion theory of collective behaviour arose. Which is NOT one of the factors that Le Bon believed promoted this collective mind?

a. suggestibility

b. a sense of decreased power

c. a sense of anonymity

d. a sense of decreased personal responsibility

e. a liberation of animalistic instincts

22. The view that collective behaviour results from the rapid spreading of emotionality, attitudes, and behaviour throughout the crowd is suggested by:

a. emergent norm theory

b. contagion theory

c. the deindividuation approach

d. cognitive theory

e. instinctive behaviour approach

23. What are the limitations of the contagion approach to collective behaviour?

a. the theory is difficult to submit to an empirical test

b. some events cited by contagion theorists are not typical of collective behaviour in general

c. it tells nothing about the development of leadership and other roles within the collectivity

d. all of the above

e. none of the above

24. Deindividuation refers to:

a. the liberation of savage, animalistic instincts which are normally suppressed

b. the transmission of feelings, ideas, and behaviour among members of a crowd through suggestion and hysteria

c. a process whereby an individual comes to see him or herself more as a member of a group than as an individual, lowering the threshold for normally restrained behaviour

d. a process whereby individuals refuse to be identified with groups and relate to others as individuals

e. a complex process that results in individuals becoming members of various groups in order to satisfy their diverse needs

25. Which of the following is a factor identified by Zimbardo as important in the process of deindividuation?

a. strong social norms

b. a structured situation

c. decreased temporal perspective

d. identifiability

e. none of the above

26. Which of the following is not one of the factors that Zimbardo identified as important in processes of deindividuation?

a. loss of responsibility

b. limited temporal perspective

c. a novel or unstructured situation

d. loss of identifiability

e. increased social norms

27. In a test of the deindividuation hypothesis carried out by Festinger, in which experimental participants were asked to talk about their parents in a group discussion:

a. more positive comments were forthcoming when they were dressed in gray lab coats and seated in a dimly lit room, because they would otherwise have been embarrassed about praising mom and dad

b. more negative comments were forthcoming when everyone sat in their street clothes in a brightly lit room

c. although students initially said positive things about their parents, their comments became more and more hostile as a result of the interstimulation

d. anonymity or lack of anonymity had no effect on the negativity of their comments

e. more negative comments were forthcoming when they were dressed in gray lab coats and seated in a dimly lit room

28. When Zimbardo compared the aggression of students who were anonymous (by virtue of wearing hoods over their faces and shapeless overcoats over their bodies) with that of experimental participants in a non-anonymous condition:

a. the experimental participants were more aggressive in the anonymous condition, supporting the deindividuation hypothesis

b. the experimental participants were less aggressive in the anonymous condition, supporting the emergent norm hypothesis

c. the experimental participants in the anonymous condition showed more evidence of contagion

d. there was no difference in the aggression of the experimental participants in the two conditions

e. both a and c

29. In the Zimbardo prison study, which of the following is not true?

a. voluntary participants were randomly assigned as prisoners or guards

b. actual prisoners and guards were used to enhance external validity

c. prisoners were assigned numbers as identification

d. over time the guards became increasingly abusive and punitive towards prisoners

e. the experiment, planned for two weeks, was terminated after six days

30. In a replication of Zimbardo’s prison experiment, reported on the BBC:

a. for a time, prisoners coalesced into a cohesive group

b. the guards did not identify with the role and were reluctant to assert their authority

c. while guards and prisoners agreed to form an egalitarian commune, they could not agree on the rules

d. the prisoners ultimately failed to form a common social identity

e. all of the above

31. Which of the following is true of research on deindividuation?

a. individuals in crowds invariably show decreases in social inhibition

b. there is a relationship between anonymity and antisocial behaviour

c. research findings seem to support the deindividuation hypothesis, but they do not by themselves demonstrate that deindividuation has occurred

d. the deindividuation hypothesis lacks empirical support

e. both b and c

32. Sociologists reviewed a set of 20 introductory sociology textbooks and found several myths propagated therein. Which of the following is not one of these myths?

a. the myth of spontaneity in forming collective groups

b. the myth of suggestibility of people in crowds

c. the myth of irrationalty in all crowds

d. the myth of the overwhelming power of crowds

e. the myth of destructiveness

33. The social identity model of deindividuation effects postulates that, in the absence of formal organization and leadership:

a. people gain their identity from what they have known previously

b. people categorize others in the crowd as an ingroup

c. people look to strangers around them for cues to their social identity

d. people become so irrational that they don’t seek identity

e. people look to the unanimity of the crowd to find their new identity

34. Which theory provides an alternative to the deindividuation explanation for the experiment where participants wore overcoats and hoods?

a. density–intensity

b. loss of control

c. attribution theory

d. social identity (SIDE)

e. the weather outside

35. In the mock prison study carried out by Zimbardo and colleagues:

a. norms developed over the course of the study that led to cooperation between prisoner and guard

b. guards became more and more abusive over the course of the study

c. prisoners did not take the situation seriously, but the guards certainly did

d. the study was supposed to last one week, but was extended to three weeks

e. both c and d

36. Which of the following is not one of the four variables that Rosnow identified as influencing the development and transmission of rumours?

a. suspiciousness

b. outcome-relevant involvement

c. credibility

d. personal anxiety

e. general uncertainty

37. Neumann and Strack (2000) told participants that they were in a study of comprehension. Then they listened to a text being read in a sad or happy voice. Researchers then assessed participants’ mood, and found that it was congruent with the happy or sad voice. This demonstrates:

a. social modelling

b. experimenter effects

c. deindividuation

d. emotional contagion

e. spread of affective disorders

38. Suppose that the dean at your university has threatened to debar you and seven of your friends from attending the university because of certain hijinks on your parts during a faculty-student seminar. She has even threatened police action. You are all quite worried about this, and are hoping that she will not carry out her threats. Today, however, you saw two police officers enter her office. Which of the four elements that according to Rosnow (1991) foster rumour development is missing from this situation?

a. credulity

b. general uncertainty

c. outcome-relevant involvement

d. personal anxiety

e. cognitive ambiguity

39. Which of the following is a condition that contributes to the formation of rumours?

a. a situation of great uncertainty

b. a situation that is important to a group of people, yet information is scarce

c. people are worried about the situation

d. both a and c

e. all of the above

40. In an experiment, four-person chains of participants conveyed a message about a restaurant using worm meat in its hamburger. In one condition, the information was given to the first person along with an indication of uncertainty as to whether it was true, while the control condition had no such expression of uncertainty. By the fourth retelling of this message, the original uncertainty had:

a. was as strong as ever

b. was still significant although less so

c. had disappeared

d. had reversed – the fourth participant was more certain than the first

e. the worm had turned

41. Research on rumours and certainty about them show that:

a. beliefs and certainty about the beliefs are separate

b. the degree of certainty about a rumour can diminish even while the content of the belief remains

c. uncertainty causes a rumour to diminish or disappear

d. both a and b

e. none of the above

42. In a study by Walker and Beckerle (1987), experimental participants were asked to redo an examination, and half were placed in a ‘high anxiety’ condition and the rest in a ‘low anxiety’ condition. It was found that:

a. low anxiety experimental participants showed more credulity towards rumours

b. high anxiety experimental participants made extensive efforts to gain more information about why they were asked to redo the exam

c. experimental participants in neither condition demonstrated any motivation to repeat rumours

d. experimental participants in the high anxiety condition showed more motivation to repeat rumours

e. experimental participants in the low anxiety condition showed more motivation to repeat rumours

43. Who are more likely to repeat a rumour?

a. depressed people

b. anxious people

c. people low in anxiety

d. people suffering from cognitive dissonance

e. acute but not chronic anxiety

44. Believable rumours tend to spread more often than unbelievable rumours. This is related to Rosnow's concept of:

a. cognitive ambiguity

b. credibility

c. outcome-relevance

d. believability

e. message integrity

45. __________ theory can readily account for the way in which anxiety facilitates rumour transmission.

a. Balance

b. Contagion

c. Cognitive dissonance

d. Deindividuation

e. Emergent norm

46. An urban legend is:

a. a story, generally accepted by the inhabitants of a city, about how the city was founded

b. a rumour of impending danger which spreads by contagion throughout a city

c. a shared but highly distorted view of city life held by rural people

d. an account of a surprising and implausible event that probably never really happened which sweeps through a population, and where the source is usually a ‘friend of a friend’

e. any account of seemingly believable events which spreads rapidly through a city

47. Which of the following is likely to qualify as an urban legend?

a. the generally shared view of New York as a very dangerous place to live

b. the story of how hockey player Maurice Richard became an epic hero to the people of Montreal

c. the story of how people ran in terror from the terrorist attack on the London tube

d. the story of how Liverpool got its name

e. the story of the woman who decided to dry her pet poodle in the microwave

48. What effect does the development of a conspiracy theory have on members of the group?

a. it tends to bind the group together emotionally

b. it binds the group together intellectually

c. it seems to provide the group members with a reason as to why they seem incapable of obtaining their goals

d. both a and c

e. all of the above

49. The (mistaken) belief that no Jews went to work at the World Trade Centre on the day of the terrorist attack in 2001 best can be defined as:

a. an urban legend

b. a contagious hysteria

c. a rumour

d. a conspiracy theory

e. a generalized belief syndrome

50. Which of the following characteristics does not apply to a fad?

a. it involves extreme behaviour

b. it involves extensive and anonymous interpersonal interaction

c. it is a short-lived type of collective behaviour

d. it is slow to develop but once popular, fades quickly

e. it frequently involves fun or frivolous behaviours

51. According to the text, the difference between fashions and fads is that fashions:

a. are more serious

b. are more likely to be cyclical

c. involve a great deal of anonymous interpersonal interaction

d. both a and b

e. there are no differences between fads and fashions

52. Which of the following characteristics applies to a fad?

a. it is a short-lived type of collective behaviour

b. it involves extreme behaviour

c. it frequently involves fun or frivolous behaviour

d. all of the above

e. none of the above

53. According to the text, fashions:

a. tend to cause a shift toward banality

b. increase anonymity

c. are used to erase the differences between people of different social levels

d. all of the above

e. none of the above

54. What type of collective behaviour is most likely to be increased as a result of anxiety about status?

a. fashions

b. fads

c. rumours

d. rebellion

e. contagions of expression

55. Research on fashions indicates that:

a. the kind of jeans you wear can influence the inferences people make about your popularity and friendliness

b. even ten-year-old children are aware of the relationship between fashion and personality inferences

c. fashions can reflect social status

d. people use fashions to differentiate themselves from individuals of inferior or lower-status groups

e. all of the above

56. Fashions may serve a number of functions in society. Which of the following is not one of them?

a. provide relief from banality

b. provide a method of defining oneself with regard to actual or aspired status

c. increase anonymity by masking social status

d. function as a status marker

e. communicate information about one's attitudes

57. Which of the following involves a ‘two step flow of communication’ for its spread?

a. fashion

b. fad

c. a contagion

d. rumour

e. a rebellion

58. Unlike typical crowd behaviour, mass contagion:

a. only lasts for a few hours

b. occurs only among very huge collectivities

c. may sometimes last for months or even years

d. only occurs among heterogeneous groups

e. never occurs among heterogeneous groups

59. If we observe others in a crowd smiling, then we smile and according to the facial feedback hypothesis:

` a. we adjust our smile to match those round us

b. we react emotionally by feeling happy

c. we feel drowsy

d. we are not as happy as we were before

e. none of the above

60. The throngs of gasping teenagers that flock around rock stars whenever they make an appearance is an example of:

a. a contagion of enthusiasm

b. a contagion of expression

c. a contagion of anxiety

d. a contagion of interpersonal excitement

e. none of the above

61. Contagions of enthusiasm:

a. often have no other goal other than the release of emotion

b. usually involve the rapid dissemination of exaggerated fears

c. often evoke unrestrained emotionalism

d. embody extraordinary hope or delusion usually about becoming wealthy

e. are often most apparent in crowd settings

62. The great tulip mania in Holland is an example of:

a. mass psychogenic illness

b. an urban myth

c. a contagion of anxiety

d. contagion of enthusiasm

e. a contagion of hostility

63. A worker in a eterminal of the Melbourne airport complained of feeling ill. Within a few hours, 47 people there reported dizziness, nausea, vomiting. Some were taken to hospital, 60 flights were cancelled and 14 000 people were left stranded. No medical explanation was ever found. What was the most likely explanation?

a. contagion of enthusiasm

b. urban myth

c. mass psychogenic illness

d. unrestrained enthusiasm

e. fear of flying

64. Which of the following is not true regarding contagions of anxiety?

a. they may produce symptoms of physical illness

b. their only goal appears to be emotional release

c. they often evoke unrestrained emotionalism

d. they involve the rapid dissemination of exaggerated fears

e. both a and b

65. The term ‘mass psychogenic illness’ is sometimes used to describe:

a. symptoms of physical illness evident in contagions of anxiety

b. certain psychiatric disorders

c. sudden eruptions of fear contagions

d. contagions that are thought to be the result of a psychological disturbance

e. contagions of hostility

66. Mass psychogenic illness seems to occur when:

a. group leaders fail to provide non-ambiguous information

b. there is a perception of terrible danger

c. individuals mutually reinforce each other's concern about the occurrence of an unpleasant event

d. there is an unease which cannot be attributed to any specific cause

e. generalized anxiety builds up and a precipitating event occurs that allows it to be attached to an external threat

67. The baiting crowd involves people encouraging a person threatening suicide to go through with it. This is an ugly example of:

a. contagion of anxiety

b. contagion of enthusiasm

c. contagion of hostility

d. contagion of sadism

e. contagion of measles

68. If generalized anxieties build up and a precipitating event occurs that allows these anxieties to be attached to an external threat, what is likely to occur?

a. hysterical contagion

b. fear contagion

c. hostility contagion

d. panic

e. expression contagion

69. In the context of collective behaviour, which of the following statements is not true with respect to the phenomenon of panic?

a. panic is a non-rational response to fear

b. panic always involves flight

c. panic refers to a generalized feeling of terror which often cannot be attributed to any specific cause

d. panic is non-social in that individuals involved show no concern for the effect of their actions on the welfare of other individuals in the collectivity

e. panic can be evoked in the absence of rumours or crowds

70. In the Middle Ages in Europe, a poor crop or stillbirth was often blamed on witches. Thousands of innocent women were burned at the stake. This appears to have been a:

a. contagion of enthusiasm

b. contagion of hostility

c. contagion of aggression

d. contagion of fear

e. contagion of witchcraft

71. Which of the following is true regarding the behaviour of people in the World Trade Centre during the terrorist attack in 2001?

` a. most behaved in a panic to escape

b. most behaved in a calm and rational manner

c. many helped those who needed help

d. a and c

e both b and c

72. Panic involves all but which of the following?

a. flight

b. fear

c. avenue of escape

d. a real or implied crowd

e. no avenue of escape

73. Which of the following statements about panic is true?

a. panic usually occurs in crowds

b. leadership structure has broken down

c. in panic, individuals usually reinforce each other's concern about escape in the face of danger

d. any behaviour that involves flight is panic

e. a, b and c are all true

74. What kind of situation is likely to produce panic?

a. when there is severe physical danger

b. when there is only one or a limited number of avenues of escape

c. when there is no avenue of escape

d. both a and b

e. all of the above

75. Which of the following is an example of collective inhibition?

a. people help each other to escape a burning building

b. people encourage a suicidal person to jump from a building

c. people stand around watching and do not try to escape danger

d. people do not express their anger to authority

e. in panic, people reinforce each other’s concern about escaping

76. According to the text, social inhibition of escape behaviour may occur as a result of:

a. the euphoria of the crowd

b. the influence of alcohol

c. the wish to avoid looking foolish or cowardly

d. both b and c

e. all of the above

77. There are some common myths about behaviour in disasters. Which of the following is not one of them?

a. people in disasters react immediately and logically to their situation

b. people caught up in disasters act in a highly disorganized way

c. when disaster strikes, people sit around dazed and unable to cope

d. looting is very common in disaster situations

e. hysterical contagion is common in disasters

78. What is believed to be the most effective communication route when consumers choose what products to buy?

a. social media

b. word of mouth

c. television

d. celebrities

e. contagion of enthusiasm

79. The phenomenon of scapegoating is fundamental to:

a. panic

b. contagions of hostility

c. contagions of anxiety

d. contagions of fear

e. disaster behaviour

80. When, in contagions of hostility, aggression is directed against a relatively powerless individual or a small group of individuals, this is referred to as:

a. a mob

b. a fear contagion

c. riot

d. mass hysteria

e. scapegoating

81. The mass murders of ‘witches’ in Europe between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries is an example of:

a. a contagion of hostility

b. panic

c. a contagion of anxiety

d. a fear contagion

e. mass hysteria

82. Panic is likely to occur when:

a. escape is possible but not for long

b. escape is impossible

c. one finds oneself in a threatening situation where other people seem frozen in inaction and do nothing to try to escape

d. disasters strike

e. both b and d

83. A riot refers to:

a. hostility directed at one or few low-power individuals

b. irrational destruction of life and property

c. aggression directed by a group at groups of similar or greater power

d. mob action

e. short-lived instances of contagions of hostility

84. How does a mob differ from a riot?

a. a mob reflects fear contagion whereas a riot reflects hostility contagion

b. a mob involves fewer people than a riot

c. a mob directs its hostility at a few low-power individuals whereas a riot directs its hostility at groups of similar or greater power

d. a and c

e. all of the above

85. The difference between the various forms of contagions and social movements is that contagions:

a. arise relatively quickly in crowds

b. are generally short-lived

c. are an aspect of collective behaviour

d. both a and b

e. all of the above

86. A social movement refers to:

a. a spontaneous large group that reacts with hostility toward scapegoats

b. a spontaneous large group constituted in support of a set of shared purposes

c. a spontaneous large group with relatively informal and short-term goals

d. a collection of non-conformists in any group or society

e. a spontaneous large group that acts in a highly disorganized, irrational and hysterical but non-violent way

87. _____ is an example of status marking

a. Laboratory coat

b. Savile Row suit

c. piercings

d. all of above

e. none of above

88. What kind of society is most likely to produce a social movement?

a. a society that is undergoing rapid social change

b. stable societies

c. socialist societies

d. conservative societies

e. both c and d

89. What was a sumptuary law?

` a. specify behaviour in large groups

b. specify what type and colour of clothing to be worn in certain situations

c. specify what type and colour of clothing to be worn by people of various social ranks

d. specify what clothing was fashionable

e. specify what brand of jeans to be worn by young girls

90. Which of the following is a type of social movement?

a. cult

b. group seeking to reform election laws

c. election day

d. large scale immigration

e. an established religious institution in your country

91. Which of the following is true about social movements?

a. some social movements can evolve into main line political forces

b. social movements vary from being general in nature, to being very specific

c. social movements almost always try to alter the social order radically by force

d. both a and b

e. all of the above

92. When there is a general discontentment with the status quo, and restlessness but no definite goals, a social movement is said to be at the __________ stage.

a. social unrest

b. formulation

c. popular excitement

d. institutionalization

e. confusion

93. The popular excitement stage of social movements is characterized by:

a. general discontent with the status quo

b. definite ideas emerge regarding the source of discontent and about goals

c. the development of an ideology for the group

d. a fixed structure and organization of the group

e. consciousness raising

94. What is the second stage of a social movement?

a. the formalization stage

b. the popular excitement stage

c. the institutionalization stage

d. the social unrest stage

e. the information propagation stage

95. What occurs when a social movement reaches the institutionalization stage?

a. policies and ideology are formalized and a leader, likely to be a kind of statesperson, is chosen

b. more definite ideas about the causes of the problems and about the goals begin to emerge

c. the movement transforms into a fixed organization with a formal structure and division of duties

d. reform-minded members tend to split off in splinter groups

e. the movement ceases to satisfy the needs of its members

96. Which of the following is NOT one of the basic concepts in the formation of social movements?

a. contagion of enthusiasm

b. expression of grievances

c. symbolization

d. strong emotions

e. identity with the movement

97. Which of the following is NOT one of the stages in the development of a social movement (Macionis & Gerber, 2011)?

a. emergence

b. coalescence into a movement

c. bureaucratization

d. revolutionary change

e. decline

99. It is observed that local opinion leaders first wear the new fashions, and then others follow. This is a demonstration of:

a. contagion of enthusiasm

b. contagion of fashion

c. two-step flow of communication

d. two-step contagion process

e. none of the above

100. What do the following have in common: fads, fashions, contagions of enthusiasm, contagion of fear?

a. all based on emotion

b. all involve limited numbers of people

c. all involve loss of individual identity

d. all may involve physical symptoms

e. all may occur without direct interpersonal contact