Exam Prep Interpreting Experience Chapter 12

CHAPTER 12: Interpreting Experience

1. Processing Information

a. Beliefs versus values

2. Functions of Beliefs and Values

a. Beliefs and values affect how we evaluate our relationships

 i. Ideal standards model

b. Beliefs and values affect how we interpret relationship events

 i. Perceptual confirmation

c. Beliefs and values affect how we behave in our relationships

 i. Behavioral confirmation

1. Self-fulfilling prophecy

3. Origins of Beliefs and Values

a. Culture and society

b. Mass media

4. Motivated Reasoning

a. Enhancement: Believing the best about a relationship

 i. Enhancement motive

  ii. Enhancement bias

b. Accuracy: Knowing and being known in a relationship

 i. Accuracy motive

  ii. Diagnosticity bias

iii. Confirmation bias

c. Justification: Being right in relationships

 i. Justification motive

  ii. Self-serving bias

5. Responding to Negative Experiences

a. Accommodation

b. Assimilation

c. Ignoring or forgetting negative information

 i. Selective attention

  ii. Memory bias

d. Minimizing the impact of negative information

 i. Positive attributions

1. Locus dimension

2. Stability dimension

  ii. Flexible standards

iii. Social comparison

1. Upward social comparison

2. Downward social comparison

6. The Limits of Motivated Reasoning

a. Ability: When we can and can’t protect our relationships

b. Motive: When we need or don’t need to protect our relationships

 i. Commitment calibration hypothesis

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. A ________ is an idea or a theory about what the world is actually like; a ________ is an idea about what the world should be like.

2. Your friend Mat announces, “If two people truly love each other, they can overcome any obstacles that come their way.” Mat’s statement is an example of:

3. Your friend Daniel believes that satisfaction early in a relationship is the most important predictor of how long the relationship will last. Another friend, Shannon, argues that satisfaction early in a relationship has very little bearing on how long the relationship will last. Who is right?

4. Samuel believes that relationships are either destined to succeed or destined to fail. This belief predicts which of the following relationship characteristics?

5. “If I get more than I expect, I will be happy, and if I get less than I expect, then I will be less happy.” This statement best illustrates which of the following theories?

6. Who is likely to be more satisfied in his or her relationship?

7. Perceptual confirmation is a process in which:

8. Sharon believes her new work colleague, Steve, may not like her very much. One day Sharon runs into Steve in the hall and they briefly chat until Steve says that he needs to get going because he has a busy day ahead of him. Sharon feels rejected by Steve and believes his departure is evidence of his dislike for her. Sharon’s response best illustrates the phenomenon of:

9. Behavioral confirmation is a process in which:

10. Lucas is high in self-esteem. He expects others will like him, so he behaves in ways that, in fact, elicit positive responses from others. This best illustrates:

11. Compared to women with low rejection sensitivity, women who feared rejection tend to behave more negatively when discussing difficult issues with their partners. This best illustrates:

12. Research regarding the origins of our beliefs and values about intimate relationships shows that:

13. ________ refers to the collected beliefs and values of a society.

14. Cultural differences in beliefs about relationships may help explain:

15. What can you conclude about the research that compares relationship satisfaction in arranged marriages and partner-selected marriages? Compared to partner-selected marriages, couples in arranged marriages:

16. Jaspreet and Imara are friends living in the same town in India. Both are getting married this summer, Jaspreet, to a neighbor’s son who was selected for her by her family and Imara, to a young man she met in one of her university classes. Based on research comparing happiness in arranged marriages and partner-selected marriages, who would you predict will have higher marital satisfaction?

17. The way in which relationships are portrayed in the media affects:

18. Jennie is 14 years old. Because her parents work long hours, she often watches shows on television with sexual and violent content that she knows her parents would not approve of. Based on how media exposure affects beliefs about relationships, what would you predict about Jennie’s behavior?

19. Which of the following statements is TRUE about the effect of media messages on our standards and beliefs about intimate relationships?

20. Which of the following statements is FALSE about the effect of media messages on our standards and beliefs about intimate relationships?

21. A ________ is a tendency to process information to protect a particular point of view; a ________ is a drive to reach a specific goal.

22. Bjorn perceives his partner’s intentions in a conflict very differently than they are perceived by outside observers. These differing perceptions can best be explained by:

23. The text describes several mechanisms of motivated reasoning in relationships. Something that all of these techniques have in common is that they:

24. Research on biases of individuals who are happy in their relationships shows that:

25. Greg and Stacey have recently started dating. Who is LEAST likely to accurately predict how long their relationship will last?

26. How are predictions about the future of a relationship and later relationship outcomes related?

27. Which description below reflects an enhancement bias in a relationship?

28. In a study by MacDonald and Ross (1999), friends, parents, and students were asked to predict how long the student’s romantic relationship would last. Who was the LEAST accurate about the likelihood of the student’s relationship lasting, and why?

29. The ________ motive suggests a preference for information that supports positive views of the partner and the relationship. The ________ motive suggests a preference for information that reflects important qualities in a partner or a relationship. The ________ motive suggests a preference for information that supports a positive view of the self, even if it hurts the relationship.

30. Thao is trying to decide whether to ask Sue out. What information processing bias will be most likely operating when he makes his decision?

31. Your friend Hugo recently met Jimena in his social psychology class and would like to ask her out on a date. Hugo spends a lot of time describing to you in great detail the latest interactions he has had with Jimena, trying to analyze whether she would be receptive to an overture. Which of the following best describes Hugo’s behavior?

32. Denise has always believed that she isn’t a great singer. After a night singing karaoke with friends, her boyfriend, Sean, casually comments that she is a pretty good singer. Which of the following is accurate?

33. What is one explanation for the self-serving bias?

34. ________ occurs when existing knowledge structures change to integrate new information. ________ occurs when new information is integrated with existing knowledge without changing the existing knowledge structures.

35. You are constantly amazed that your friend Parminder seems unaware of the negative behaviors of her boyfriend, Sam. You notice that Sam has a tendency to tease Parminder in a mean-spirited way in front of her friends. What might explain this phenomenon?

36. A study that followed men for 40 years and asked them to rate their marital satisfaction at regular intervals found the usual gradual decline in satisfaction over time. However, in a retrospective account after 40 years, the men reported that their marriages had been very satisfying in the beginning, grew gradually less satisfying in the middle years, and then became more satisfying again in recent years (a U-shaped curve). Their memories of how their satisfaction changed were ________ with the actual satisfaction data collected over the course of their lives due to a ________.

37. Samantha and Carmine, like many couples, have experienced declining satisfaction over the years. However, Samantha is quite adamant that their relationship is “the best it’s ever been!” How is this possible?

38. In couples’ relationships, memory biases:

39. Selective attention and memory bias serve to ________, whereas adaptive attributions and flexible standards serve to ________.

40. The explanations an individual makes about a partner’s behavior are:

41. Jack and Kate are unhappy in their relationship. Robbie and Sawyer are happy in their relationship. One night, Jack and Robbie find themselves sitting at a restaurant waiting for their very late partners to arrive for dinner. According to research on attributions in relationships, Jack is likely to think ________, and Robbie is likely to think ________.

42. ________ refers to whether the cause of behavior is something about the person or something about circumstances; ________ refers to whether the cause of the behavior is something that is likely to persist over time or is temporary.

43. Tom and Amrita have been fighting a lot and are thinking of breaking up. After a particularly bad fight, Tom decides to pick up some flowers for Amrita on his way home. Amrita thinks that Tom is bringing her flowers because he is feeling guilty about the fight and not because he is sorry. What kind of attribution is she making?

44. Jasmine’s partner comes home from work with a bouquet of flowers for her. Jasmine thinks, “Sarah hardly ever brings me flowers. She’s so cheap; they must have been on sale.” Because Jasmine is ________, we can conclude that she and Sarah are in a ________ relationship.

45. Unhappy people tend to make attributions about their partner’s behavior that are ________ and ________ for negative behaviors.

46. Even after Bill Clinton had an affair with Monica Lewinsky, Hillary Clinton did not seek to divorce him. What kind of information processing may have led to her decision to stay?

47. When you were in high school, your friend Janise said that a romantic partner with a sense of humor was critical to a lasting relationship. At your 5-year reunion, you meet her husband, and he seems to be a nice person but quite deficient in the humor department. Having just taken a course on close relationships, you recognize that this is an example of ________.

48. ________ involve comparisons with others who are doing worse than we are; ________ involve comparisons with others who are doing better than we are.

49. People who _________, as opposed to _______, can feel more encouraged in their intimate relationships.

50. We would expect relationship partners who make ________ comparisons to be happier than those who make ________ comparisons.

51. When is a spouse LEAST likely to make adaptive attributions about her or his partner’s negative behavior?

52. According to the commitment calibration hypothesis, people who are in ______ marriages rated dating service photos of attractive alternate partners as significantly _________attractive compared to ratings of ______ married individuals.

53. John has been married 10 years but is very unhappy with his relationship. There is an attractive female coworker, Leila, at his office. According to the commitment calibration hypothesis, in which of the following situations is John most likely to DOWNPLAY his perception of Leila’s attractiveness?

1. Researchers have distinguished between two dimensions of relationship knowledge: (1) beliefs versus values; and (2) general versus specific knowledge. Define beliefs and values, and then offer examples of a general belief and a general value about relationships.

2. Explain and give examples of three ways in which people’s thoughts about relationships can affect what they experience in their relationships.

3. Nayanna says, “I want a relationship that sweeps me off my feet.” According to the ideal standards model, how might this impact Nayanna’s satisfaction in her current relationship?

4. Contrast perceptual and behavioral confirmation, and indicate how each can affect relationship experiences.

5. When considering factors that determine people’s beliefs and values about relationships, why is it important to distinguish between influences that are more distant from the individual and influences that are specific to the individual?

6. Jaspreet and Imara are friends living in the same town in India. Both are getting married this summer, Jaspreet to a neighbor’s son who was selected for her by her family and Imara to a young man she met in one of her university classes. Based on research comparing happiness in arranged marriages and partner-selected marriages, what would you predict about Jaspreet’s and Imara’s marital satisfaction?

7. You have been asked to participate in a radio show about how the media affect our beliefs about ourselves and our relationships. One of the other participants comments that, because of the pervasiveness of media, people are bombarded by unhealthy messages they can do little about. How do you respond?

8. Selim believes that his partner, Amira, is warm, generous, and funny. Amira does not see herself in such a positive light. Considering the confirmation and self-enhancement motives, what prediction would you make about their relationship, and why?

9. Compare the confirmation and enhancement biases.

10. Kia is very unhappy in her relationship with Denny. She describes Denny as unreliable and mean, and she belittles his intelligence. What is most likely operating in her views of Denny? Why might Kia be processing information about Denny in ways that contribute to her unhappiness in the relationship?

11. Explain assimilation and accommodation, and provide a relationship example of each.

12. Long-term married partners tend to retrospectively report a U-shaped change in their marital satisfaction, that is, looking back, they believe their relationships started out great, worsened somewhat over time, and then improved more recently. On the other hand, research demonstrates that marital satisfaction generally shows a linear decline over time. How can we explain this apparent discrepancy?

13. You and your partner are at a party and your partner says something that embarrasses you. Define and provide examples of two kinds of attributions that you might make about your partner’s behavior: (1) stable/internal; and (2) temporary/internal.

14. You have just returned from a long business trip, and your partner is late coming to meet you at the airport. Define and provide examples of two kinds of attributions that you might make about your partner’s behavior: (1) stable/external; and (2) temporary/external.

15. What are downward social comparisons? Under what conditions are people particularly likely to engage in downward social comparisons, and why?

16. Is integration of positive and negative perceptions of the partner good or bad for a relationship?

17. In the chapter on motivated reasoning, your textbook authors review a number of ways in which partners who feel positive about their relationships can protect those positive feelings from negative information. Given the strategies at their disposal, why do people fail to continue to feel positively about their relationships regardless of specific experiences and observations? That is, why—from this perspective—does satisfaction decline?

18. Define and explain the commitment calibration hypothesis.