Chapter 4: Explanations of Criminal Behavior

Test Bank

Multiple Choice

1. A ______ is a set of ideas that is used to explain a particular phenomenon or concept.

a. correlation

b. causation

c. hypothesis

d. theory

Learning Objective: 4-1: Describe how theories of crime are developed.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

2. ______ implies that there is something that directly influences or is responsible for people engaging in criminal behavior.

a. Correlation

b. Causation

c. Hypothesis

d. Theory

Learning Objective: 4-1: Describe how theories of crime are developed.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

3. Sometimes, when one variable increases, so does the other. This is referred to as ______. It means that two variables are linked to each other.

a. correlation

b. causation

c. hypothesis

d. theory

Learning Objective: 4-1: Describe how theories of crime are developed.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

4. A ______ frames a question that a research is looking to answer.

a. research question

b. hypothesis

c. theory

d. correlation

Learning Objective: 4-1: Describe how theories of crime are developed.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

5. As the number of arrests increases, the prison sentence will also increase. This is an example of a ______.

a. research question

b. hypothesis

c. theory

d. correlation

Learning Objective: 4-1: Describe how theories of crime are developed.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

6. Minorities are more likely to be arrested than their white counterparts. This is an example of a ______.

a. research question

b. hypothesis

c. theory

d. correlation

Learning Objective: 4-1: Describe how theories of crime are developed.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

7. A ______ provides a path of inquiry to study.

a. research question

b. hypothesis

c. theory

d. correlation

Learning Objective: 4-1: Describe how theories of crime are developed.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

8. ______ theories of crime focus on individual differences between law-abiding and law-violating behaviors.

a. Macro

b. Micro

c. Meso

d. Mini

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

9. ______ theories of crime explore the large-scale social explanations for crime.

a. Macro

b. Micro

c. Meso

d. Mini

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

10. Biological explanations for criminality are examples of ______ theories.

a. macro

b. micro

c. meso

d. mini

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

11. Exploring how poverty causes crime is an example of ______ theories.

a. macro

b. micro

c. meso

d. mini

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

12. A fundamental premise of the ______ school of thought is that people engage in crime as a result of free will.

a. classical

b. positivist

c. interactionist

d. deterministic

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Classical Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

13. The ______ emerged out of a focus on the scientific method and involved a data-driven approach to understanding criminal behavior.

a. classical

b. positivist

c. interactionist

d. deterministic

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Classical Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

14. Which of the following theories suggests that people will avoid potentially pleasurable acts (such as criminal behaviors) if the pain or fear of punishment is significant?

a. biological

b. psychological

c. deterrence

d. rational choice

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Cesare Beccaria

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

15. ______ is a subfield of criminology that specifically looks at issues of punishment, incarceration, and rehabilitation.

a. Victimology

b. Penology

c. Biocriminology

d. Feminist criminology

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Cesare Beccaria

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

16. Cesare Beccaria’s pain-pleasure principle is linked to the notion of ______.

a. incapacitation

b. deterrence

c. rehabilitation

d. reformation

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Cesare Beccaria

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

17. Which of the following criminologists is known, among other things, for his development of the panopticon?

a. Cesare Beccaria

b. Cesare Lombroso

c. Sigmund Freud

d. Jeremy Bentham

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Jeremy Bentham

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

18. Jeremy Bentham argued that younger offenders should be treated differently than adult offenders as a result of which of the following?

a. socioeconomic status

b. race/ethnicity

c. decision-making abilities

d. gender

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Jeremy Bentham

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

19. The design of the panopticon was ______.

a. circular

b. rectangular

c. octagonal

d. hexagonal

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Jeremy Bentham

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

20. Which of the following theories of crime explores how experiences such as early childhood experiences, cognitive development, and personality characteristics can help explain criminality?

a. biological

b. psychological

c. classical

d. sociological

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Biological and Psychological Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

21. Which of the following theories looks at genetic characteristics to explain offending?

a. biological

b. psychological

c. classical

d. sociological

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Biological and Psychological Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

22. One of the major contributions of ______ was that he was the first to use the scientific method to explain criminal behavior.

a. Cesare Beccaria

b. Cesare Lombroso

c. Sigmund Freud

d. Jeremy Bentham

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Cesare Lombroso

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

23. The majority of Lombroso’s subjects came from ______ prisons.

a. American

b. English

c. Italian

d. Spanish

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Cesare Lombroso

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

24. Cesare Lombroso and William Ferrero noted which of the following physical characteristics of incarcerated women?

a. occipital irregularities

b. small noses

c. pronounced chins

d. thin lips

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: William Ferrero

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

25. Cesare Lombroso and William Ferrero suggested which of the following?

a. women are more evolved than men

b. female criminals were believed to be just as feminine as non-criminal females

c. female offenders were more likely to experience maternal instincts

d. the evil tendencies of female offenders are more numerous and more varied than men’s

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: William Ferrero

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

26. Lombroso and Ferrero were convinced that women who engaged in crime would be ______.

a. more sensitive to pain

b. somewhat more compassionate

c. less jealous than those who did engage in crime

d. full of revenge

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: William Ferrero

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

27. Which of the following theorists argued that an individual’s personality is based on the id, the ego, and the superego?

a. William Ferrero

b. Cesare Beccaria

c. Sigmund Freud

d. Jean Piaget

Answer Location:

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Sigmund Freud

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

28. The ______ refers to one’s instinctual wants and desires and is present at birth.

a. superego

b. ego

c. id

d. super id

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Sigmund Freud

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

29. Which of the following is more realistic and represents the part of the personality that deals with cognitive decision-making skills?

a. id

b. super ego

c. ego

d. super id

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Sigmund Freud

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

30. The ______ is considered to be the voice of reason.

a. id

b. superego

c. ego

d. super id

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Sigmund Freud

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

31. Which of the following types of theories posits that offenders have failed to develop the capacity to make moral judgements?

a. biological

b. cognitive development theories

c. sociological

d. classical

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Contemporary Biological and Psychological Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

32. Jean Piaget’s ______ refers to the first two years of life where children learn about the world through their sensory explorations.

a. sensorimotor stage

b. preoperational stage

c. concrete operational stage

d. formal operational stage

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Jean Piaget

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

33. During Piaget’s ______, children develop their language communication skills.

a. sensorimotor stage

b. preoperational stage

c. concrete operational stage

d. formal operational stage

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Jean Piaget

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

34. Lawrence Kohlberg’s ______ level takes place when children learn how to evaluate how they can avoid punishment.

a. preconventional

b. conventional

c. operational

d. preoperational

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Lawrence Kohlberg

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

35. Level three of Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of cognitive development and crime, the ______, takes place when young adults begin to consider their worldview in light of their own moral compass.

a. operational

b. preoperational

c. postconventional

d. conventional

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Lawrence Kohlberg

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

36. ______ combines features of biological theories of crime and how they interact with social environments to produce criminological behaviors.

a. Classica theories of crime

b. Sociological theories of crime

c. Cognitive development theories of crime

d. Biosocial theories of crime

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Biosocial Theories

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

37. Which of the following was identified as being one of the most studied variables in the realm of environment and crime?

a. asbestos

b. lead

c. mold

d. insecticides

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Biosocial Theories

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

38. Which of the following theories look at how larger social structures such as environment and institutions such as schools, peer groups, and the family can help explain criminal behavior?

a. biological

b. psychological

c. sociological

d. classical

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Sociological Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

39. Sociological theories of crimes are considered to be ______.

a. micro-level theories

b. macro-level theories

c. meso-level theories

d. individual-level theories

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Sociological Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

40. Who among the following theorists set the foundation for social disorganization theory in their studies on the city of Chicago?

a. Shaw and McKay

b. Park and Burgess

c. Beccaria and Bentham

d. Gottfredson and Hirschi

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Social Disorganization Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

41. Which of the following macro theories investigates how neighborhood environments contribute to criminal behavior?

a. social bonds theory

b. social disorganization theory

c. labeling theory

d. differential association theory

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Social Disorganization Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

42. Social disorganization theory is a reflection of how crime is related to ______.

a. socioeconomic status

b. education

c. gender

d. race/ethnicity

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Social Disorganization Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

43. Which of the following theories focuses on stress and frustration as a cause of criminality?

a. social disorganization

b. strain

c. differential association

d. labeling

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Anomie and Strain Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

44. ______ is a sense of normlessness that societies experience as a result of a breakdown in the social cohesion.

a. Labeling

b. Differential association

c. Strain

d. Anomie

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Anomie and Strain Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

45. April is a law abiding college student with a 2-year old daughter. She works evenings and weekends to provide a better life for herself and her child. Which mode of adaptation best describes her?

a. conformist

b. innovation

c. ritualism

d. retreatism

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Anomie and Strain Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Hard

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

46. Jason sells drugs in an effort to make money and gain status in life. Which mode of adaptation best describes Jason?

a. ritualism

b. rebellion

c. retreatism

d. innovation

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Anomie and Strain Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Hard

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

47. The ______ is someone who accepts both the socially approved goals and the means to achieve them.

a. conformist

b. ritualist

c. retreatist

d. innovator

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Anomie and Strain Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

48. The ______ is not interested in traditional measures of success, nor is this person willing to engage in hard work.

a. conformist

b. ritualist

c. retreatist

d. innovator

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Anomie and Strain Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

49. ______ looks at individualized psychological sources as correlates of criminal behavior.

a. Differential association theory

b. Social disorganization theory

c. Labeling theory

d. General strain theory

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: General Strain Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

50. According to Robert Agnew’s adaptations to strain, ______ accepts society’s goals and rejects society’s means to achieve the goals.

a. conformity

b. innovation

c. ritualism

d. rebellion

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: General Strain Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

51. Developed by Edwin Sutherland, which of the following theories posits that these learned behaviors about crime and delinquency are a result of peer associations?

a. strain

b. differential association

c. social disorganization

d. social bond

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Differential Association Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

52. Differential associations may vary in _______.

a. needs

b. duration

c. values

d. location

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Differential Association Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

53. Developed by Howard Becker, which of the following theories is based on the self-fulfilling prophecy?

a. differential association

b. labeling

c. social bond

d. social disorganization

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

54. ______ suggests that people learn from observing the behaviors of others around them.

a. Social disorganization

b. Social bonds

c. Labeling

d. Social learning

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Social Learning Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

55. Which of the following theories differs from others as it focuses on factors that prevent people from acting on potential criminological impulses or desires?

a. differential association

b. labeling

c. social bond

d. social disorganization

Learning Objective: 4-5: Discuss how social bond theory differs from other forms of macro-level theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Social Bond Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

56. Which of the following social bonds refers to the investment that an individual has to the normative values of society?

a. attachment

b. commitment

c. involvement

d. belief

Learning Objective: 4-5: Discuss how social bond theory differs from other forms of macro-level theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Social Bond Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

57. Which of the following social bonds refers to a general acceptance of the rules of society?

a. attachment

b. commitment

c. involvement

d. belief

Learning Objective: 4-5: Discuss how social bond theory differs from other forms of macro-level theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Social Bond Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

58. ______ theory looks at how criminality begins during adolescence or young adulthood and either persists or desists throughout one’s life and the factors or life events that may encourage these shifts in behavior.

a. Social learning

b. Life course

c. Differential association

d. Feminist pathways

Learning Objective: 4-6: Discuss the contributions of contemporary theories of crime in understanding criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Life Course Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

59. Sampson and Laub developed the ______ theory based on longitudinal data collected between 1949 and 1963 by Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck.

a. differential association

b. age graded developmental

c. critical criminology

d. general theory of crime

Learning Objective: 4-6: Discuss the contributions of contemporary theories of crime in understanding criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Life Course Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

60. Which of the following seeks to show how life events (and traumas) affect the likelihood to engage in crime?

a. differential association

b. social bonds

c. feminist pathways

d. general theory of crime

Learning Objective: 4-6: Discuss the contributions of contemporary theories of crime in understanding criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Feminist Pathways

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

61. Which of the following schools of criminology suggests that criminals are different from other citizens?

a. classical

b. positivist

c. biological

d. psychological

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Current Controversy 4.1: Is There a Relationship Between Race and Class and Criminal Behavior?

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

62. Which of the following theories is consistent with the argument that there is a relationship between social class and crime?

a. differential association

b. strain

c. feminist pathways

d. general theory of crime

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Current Controversy 4.1: Is There a Relationship Between Race and Class and Criminal Behavior?

Difficulty Level: Hard

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

63. The argument that mental illness does NOT cause crime and violence posits that symptoms ______.

a. facilitate crime

b. motivate the offender to commit crime

c. cause criminal behavior

d. have no role in causing crime

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Current Controversy 4.2: Does Mental Illness Cause Crime?

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

True/False

1. Macro theories of crime focus on individual differences between law-abiding and law-violating behaviors while micro theories of crime explore the large-scale social explanations for crime.

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

2. Correlation implies that there is something that directly influences or is responsible for people engaging in criminal behavior while causation means that two variables are linked together.

Learning Objective: 4-1: Describe how theories of crime are developed.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

3. Theories are sets of ideas used to explain a particular phenomenon or concept.

Learning Objective: 4-1: Describe how theories of crime are developed.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

4. Criminologists look to theories to help explain what causes crime and, more specifically, why people engage in criminal behavior.

Learning Objective: 4-1: Describe how theories of crime are developed.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

5. The fundamental perspective of the classical school of criminology is that people engage in criminal behavior as a result of their own free will.

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Classical Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

6. The positivist school of criminology involves a data-driven approach to understanding criminal behavior.

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Classical Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

7. Incapacitation suggests that people will avoid potentially pleasurable acts if the pain or fear of punishment is significant.

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Cesare Beccaria

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

8. According to psychological theories, crime occurs as a result of an inherited trait in an individual.

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Foundations of Biological Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

9. Freud argued that an individual’s personality is based on three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego.

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Sigmund Freud

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

10. Research has not been able to document a relationship between environment and crime.

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Biosocial Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

11. Sociological theories of crime are considered to be micro-level theories of crime.

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Sociological Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

12. Damon engages in regular drug use as a coping mechanism to escape. According to Merton, this best illustrates rebellion.

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Anomie and Strain Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

13. Agnew’s general strain theory highlights three potential sources of strain: failure in achieving positive goals, the loss of positive influences, and the arrival of negative influences.

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: General Strain Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

14. According to differential association theory, a person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law.

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Differential Association Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

15. Secondary deviance occurs after an individual has been labeled.

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

16. Primary deviance refers to serious acts that are often brought to the attention of police and courts.

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Labeling Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

17. Hirschi argued that attachment refers to the bond that people have with family, friends, and social institutions. It may serve as an informal control against criminality.

Learning Objective: 4-5: Discuss how social bond theory differs from other forms of macro-level theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Social Bond Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

18. A person who decides NOT to engage in criminality for fear of jeopardizing their future in law enforcement after graduating with a college degree is an example of commitment.

Learning Objective: 4-5: Discuss how social bond theory differs from other forms of macro-level theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Social Bond Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

19. In comparison with other criminological theories, social bond theory is unique in that it looks for explanations as to why people might desist from criminal behavior.

Learning Objective: 4-5: Discuss how social bond theory differs from other forms of macro-level theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Social Bond Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

20. Travis Hirschi identified four elements of the bond: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.

Learning Objective: 4-5: Discuss how social bond theory differs from other forms of macro-level theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Social Bond Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

21. Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime suggests that ties to conventional adult activities such as family and work can serve as a protective factor in adulthood, even if the individual has engaged in delinquent acts during adolescence.

Learning Objective: 4-6: Discuss the contributions of contemporary theories of crime in understanding criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Life Course Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

22. Age-graded development theory explains how one might engage in crime as a result of one’s life events.

Learning Objective: 4-6: Discuss the contributions of contemporary theories of crime in understanding criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Life Course Theory

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

23. Feminist criminology rose as an alternative to many of the traditional theories of crime.

Learning Objective: 4-6: Discuss the contributions of contemporary theories of crime in understanding criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

24. Scholars point out that feminist discussions about crime are limited to “women’s issues.”

Ans. F

KEY: Learning Objective: 4-6: Discuss the contributions of contemporary theories of crime in understanding criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

25. Feminist pathways research seeks to show how life events and traumas affect the likelihood to engage in crime.

Learning Objective: 4-6: Discuss the contributions of contemporary theories of crime in understanding criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Feminist Pathways

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

Short Answer

1. What is the difference between micro- and macro-level theories on crime.

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

2. Define and provide one example of a hypothesis.

Learning Objective: 4-1: Describe how theories of crime are developed.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Hard

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

3. What is a research question? Provide an example.

Learning Objective: 4-1: Describe how theories of crime are developed.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: What is a Theory of Crime?

Difficulty Level: Hard

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

4. What is the major difference between classical and positivist theories of crime?

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Classical Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

5. Explain what positivism is.

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Classical Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

6. Describe the classical approach to criminology.

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Classical Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Easy

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

7. What are the major contributions of Bentham?

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Cesare Beccaria

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

8. According to social disorganization theory, what is the root cause of criminality?

Learning Objective: 4-3: Identify the differences between macro and micro theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Social Disorganization Theory

Difficulty Level: Hard

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

9. What is the difference between anomie and strain?

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Anomie and Strain Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

10. Explain life course theory.

Learning Objective: 4-6: Discuss the contributions of contemporary theories of crime in understanding criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Life Course Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

Essay

1. How can Freud’s concepts of the id, ego and superego be used to understand criminal behavior?

Learning Objective: 4-2: Evaluate the contributions of classical, biological, and psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Sigmund Freud

Difficulty Level: Hard

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

2. Compare and contrast Merton’s strain theory with Agnew’s general strain theory.

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Anomie and Strain Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

3. How does differential association theory view crime? Be specific, and explain the theory in detail.

Learning Objective: 4-4: Compare and contrast the different features of strain theory, differential association theory, and labeling theory.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Anomie and Strain Theories of Crime

Difficulty Level: Hard

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

4. List and explain the four elements of the bond according to Hirschi.

Learning Objective: 4-5: Discuss how social bond theory differs from other forms of macro-level theories of crime.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Social Bond Theory

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.

5. What is the significance of feminist criminology?

Learning Objective: 4-6: Discuss the contributions of contemporary theories of crime in understanding criminal behavior.

REF: Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Feminist Criminology

Difficulty Level: Medium

TOP: SAGE Course Outcome: Articulate the foundations of criminal justice, including definitions, theories, typologies, measurement issues, policies, and the law.