Ch7 Complete Test Bank + Environmental Anthropology Relating

Chapter 7: Environmental Anthropology: Relating to the Natural World

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 01

1) People who study the effects of global economic changes on human–nature relationships and the impact of sustainable development initiatives on certain groups are

Feedback: Environmental anthropology is the field that studies how different societies understand, interact with, and make changes to the natural world.
Page reference: Do All People See Nature in the Same Way?

a. medical anthropologists.

b. linguistic anthropologists.

c. naturalist anthropologists.

*d. environmental anthropologists.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 02

2) According to Itzaj beliefs:

Feedback: According to Itzaj beliefs, humans and nature do not occupy separate realms; there is both real and symbolic reciprocity and communication between plants, animals, and humans. For example, forest spirits called arux (“masters of the wind”) continually monitor people, and they play tricks on those who cut down too many trees or kill too many animals. Those who show respect by not wantonly destroying plants and animals receive help from the arux, who will lead people to animals they are hunting or to useful trees. It is not accidental that Itzaj agricultural practices respect and preserve the forest.
Page reference: Do All People See Nature in the Same Way?

*a. humans and nature exist in the same realm.

b. humans and nature exist in separate realms.

c. water is the elixir of life.

d. cutting down trees brings good luck.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 03

3) What relationship between nature and human does Western thought emphasize?

a. Complementary

*b. Oppositional

c. Close

d. Respectful

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 04

4) The concept that people have images, knowledge, and concepts of the physical landscape that affect how they will actually interact with it is called

Feedback: Many other environmental anthropologists believe that an extreme deterministic position leaves humans and nature divided, virtually in opposition, and that there is in fact less of a stark division between people and nature and more of a give-and-take in which people’s lives are affected by nature but people also shape nature to fit their own interests. In-deed, contemporary ecological science supports this second position, recognizing that humans have dramatic and subtle effects on their environments, acting as a “keystone species”—predators who regulate animal populations and the functioning of ecosystems, which are natural systems based on the interaction of non-living factors and living organisms.

Page reference: Do All People See Nature in the Same Way?

*a. a cultural landscape.

b. an ecosystem.

c. a subsistence strategy.

d. a metaphor.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 05

5) Traditional ecological knowledge is

Feedback: Traditional ecological knowledge refers to indigenous ecological knowledge and its relationship with resource management strategies. One of the more important findings of this field is that many ecological relations recognized by indigenous peoples are not known to Western science. One reason for Western unfamiliarity is that this knowledge often involves species that are endemic to remote regions and do not exist elsewhere. Another reason local ecological knowledge is not well known to Western science is that knowledge often resides in local languages, songs, or specialized ritual knowledge. Healers and shamans are important repositories of local plant knowledge and lore, and they may even keep their knowledge secret from other people in their own society.
Page reference: How Does Non-Western Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science?

a. rarely shared in local languages.

b. not useful in the contemporary world.

c. extremely valued by Westerners.

*d. not well known in the West because some species and ecological interactions exist in only one place.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 06

6) Which part of the Zapotec agricultural system does not correspond well to Western ecological understandings?

Feedback: Some elements of Zapotec science do not correspond to Western science and beliefs about effective resource management, however. One of the most important differences is that the Zapotec make no distinction between ecological knowledge and other forms of knowledge, such as ideas about morally acceptable behavior. Zapotecs believe that cultivations, especially maize, have a soul that rewards people who share with others. As a result, they believe that the success of a harvest is directly related to the farmer’s positive reciprocal exchange relations with other members of the community.

Page reference: How Does Non-Western Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science?

a. Planting practices

b. Harvesting practices

*c. The idea that maize has a soul

d. Taxonomy

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 07

7) Why do environmental anthropologists study formal nature protection?

Feedback: To prevent overgrazing and conserve resources for themselves and wildlife populations, Maasai traditionally practiced a form of pastoralism called “transhumant pastoralism” in which they ranged over large territories of commonly held property on regular paths and cycles. During drought years, when pastures are most susceptible to overgrazing, the Maasai would traditionally bring cattle to swamp areas and permanent waterholes. But during the twentieth century, national parks and nature reserves were typically formed around these permanent wet areas (since a lot of wild animals congregate there, too), preventing Maasai access to them. Park administrators and scientists did not understand the delicate balance between people and wildlife that was sustained by the constant movement of people, their herds, and the wild animals. The result is that the Maasai were forced to overgraze areas outside the park during drought periods, producing great resentment among the Maasai and conflicts with park officials

Page reference: How Does Non-Western Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science?

a. Westerners are the only ones who do it.

*b. It often generates social conflicts.

c. It is not working.

d. It is a human universal.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 08

8) Landscapes that are the result of human shaping are

Feedback: Anthropogenic landscapes are the product of direct or indirect human shaping.
Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

a. cultural landscape.

b. ecosystem landscapes.

*c. anthropogenic landscapes.

d. political ecology.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 09

9) The perception that the North American continent was an unpeopled wilderness during the early period of European settlement when British settlers arrived is an example of

Feedback: Anthropogenic landscapes are the product of direct or indirect human shaping.
Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

a. an ecosystem.

b. a cultural landscape.

*c. an anthropogenic landscape.

d. sustainable development.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 10

10) The Maasai people of Kenya and Tanzania practice

Feedback: To prevent overgrazing and conserve resources for themselves and wildlife populations, Maasai traditionally practiced a form of pastoralism called “transhumant pastoralism” in which they ranged over large territories of commonly held property on regular paths and cycles. During drought years, when pastures are most susceptible to overgrazing, the Maasai would traditionally bring cattle to swamp areas and permanent waterholes. But during the twentieth century, national parks and nature reserves were typically formed around these permanent wet areas (since a lot of wild animals congregate there, too), preventing Maasai access to them. Park administrators and scientists did not understand the delicate balance between people and wildlife that was sustained by the constant movement of people, their herds, and the wild animals. The result is that the Maasai were forced to overgraze areas outside the park during drought periods, producing great resentment among the Maasai and conflicts with park officials.

Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

a. foraging.

b. horticulture.

c. agriculture.

*d. transhumant pastoralism.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 11

11) What is “fortress conservation”?

Feedback: “Fortress Conservation” is an approach to conservation that assumes that people are threatening to nature, and that for nature to be pristine, the people who live there must be evicted.
Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

a. The protection of old walled cities, castles, and forts

*b. An approach to conservation that assumes that people are threatening to nature

c. An approach to conservation that allows for human–animal interaction

d. An approach to national parks that includes building high-security fences and walls for protection

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 12

12) A social movement that addresses the linkages between racial discrimination and injustice, social equity, and environmental quality is

Feedback: Environmental justice refers to a social movement addressing the linkages between racial discrimination and injustice, social equity, and environmental quality.

Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

a. political ecology.

b. demography.

c. political economy.

*d. environmental justice.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 13

13) Analyses that focus on the linkages between political-economic power, social inequality, and ecological destruction are typical of which approach?

Feedback: Political ecology is the field of study that focuses on the linkages between political-economic power, social inequality, and ecological destruction.
Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

a. Demography

b. Environmental anthropology

c. Political economy

*d. Political ecology

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 14

14) Thomas Malthus argued that

Feedback: Eighteenth-century theologian Thomas Malthus argued that human population grows exponentially (as opposed to arithmetically), quickly overwhelming a limited resource base and leading to famine. Some modern environmentalists, such as Paul Ehrlich, who in 1968 wrote a book with the alarming title The Population Bomb, have argued that this is happening on a global scale in the world today. The numbers are stark: in the 72 years from 1927 to 1999, there was a threefold increase in world population, from approximately 2 billion to 6 billion people. Today, that population has grown to nearly 7.5 billion. At these rates of growth, Ehrlich and others concluded that complete environmental collapse is likely. The problem seems self-evident: a small planet cannot indefinitely support a quickly expanding global population, and ecological ruin awaits us if we do not control our population growth.
Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

a. the earth can sustain a large amount of people if technology is used correctly.

*b. population growth will eventually lead to famine.

c. native people do not know how to take care of farmland.

d. we should not have private property.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 15

15) To assess an ecological footprint, scientists measure

Feedback: The concept of an ecological footprint addresses this issue by measuring what people consume and the waste they produce. It then calculates the amount of biologically productive land and water area needed to support them.
Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

a. the amount of greenhouse gases in the air.

b. the amount of farmland that is in use versus what is lying fallow.

c. how many people are born compared with how many deaths there are.

*d. how many hectares or acres of land it takes for each person to survive.

Type: True/False

Title: Chapter 07 Question 16

16) Contemporary ecological science supports the idea that human cultural behaviors are solely shaped by the environment.

Feedback: Contemporary ecological science supports this second position, recognizing that humans have dramatic and subtle effects on their environments, acting as a “keystone species”—predators who regulate animal populations and the functioning of ecosystems, which are natural systems based on the interaction of non-living factors and living organisms.
Page reference: How Does Non-Western Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science?

a. True

*b. False

Type: True/False

Title: Chapter 07 Question 17

17) All knowledge systems about nature, including science, are culturally based.

Feedback: Environmental anthropologists try to describe the traditional knowledge that different societies have of their natural environments, recognizing that all knowledge systems about nature, including science, are culturally based. This goal dates back to the beginnings of anthropology as a discipline.
Page reference: How Does Non-Western Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science?

*a. True

b. False

Type: True/False

Title: Chapter 07 Question 18

18) An ecological footprint is a measurement of the population an area can support.

Feedback: The concept of an ecological footprint addresses this issue by measuring what people consume and the waste they produce. It then calculates the amount of biologically productive land and water area needed to support them.
Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

a. True

*b. False

Type: True/False

Title: Chapter 07 Question 19

19) It has been proven that overpopulation will inevitably lead to global famine.

Feedback: In addition, anthropologists have also shown that the environmental disruptions that lead to famines result from a complex interplay of natural conditions with existing patterns of social inequality. For example, during the 1985 Ethiopian famine, Western aid and relief agencies like the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) argued that Ethiopia’s population was too large, resulting in the overconsumption of natural resources, environmental collapse, and famine.
Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

a. True

*b. False

Type: True/False

Title: Chapter 07 Question 20

20) Famines are often caused by not environmental factors but social factors like inequality.

Feedback: In addition, anthropologists have also shown that the environmental disruptions that lead to famines result from a complex interplay of natural conditions with existing patterns of social inequality. For example, during the 1985 Ethiopian famine, Western aid and relief agencies like the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) argued that Ethiopia’s population was too large, resulting in the overconsumption of natural resources, environmental collapse, and famine.
Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

*a. True

b. False

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 21

21) One of the primary reasons indigenous leaders criticize the dominant model for administering protected environmental areas is

Feedback: The dominant cultural model for administering protected areas is based on the separation of hu-mans and nature, emphasizing that nature must be kept uninhabited by people. Around the world, this model has led to forced evictions of indigenous peoples living on protected landscapes, disrupting their customary livelihoods, traditional land rights, and systems of environmental management that emphasize the conservation of resources. Environmental anthropologists have studied these dynamics closely, because they often generate social conflict in communities with different cultural perspectives on and histories within the natural world, as well as different approaches toward its management and protection.
Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

a. they don't allow big-game hunting.

*b. they assume nature must be uninhabited by people.

c. they don't charge enough to visitors for entering the area.

d. they focus too much on integrating animals.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 22

22) Throughout human history, humans have tended to adapt to the land in a way that is supportive of population size, a practice referred to as

Feedback: Carrying capacity is the population an area can support.
Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

a. climate change.

b. environmental determinism.

c. cultural relativism.

*d. carrying capacity.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 23

23) “Mother nature” and “natural resources” are a good example of

Feedback: An example of a metaphor of human–nature relatedness is “Mother Nature,” a concept that is familiar in many cultures and that remains popular in North America and Europe today. It represents nature as a living force with feminine qualities of procreation and nurturing, and it is an example of an “adult–child caring” metaphor that exists in many societies.
Page reference: Do All People See Nature in the Same Way?

a. cultural landscapes.

b. ecosystems.

*c. metaphors of human–nature interaction.

d. idioms.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 24

24) Which of the following is a key argument of ethnobiologist Brent Berlin, who compared human classification systems?

Feedback: The Linnaean classification system is what the scientific discipline of biology uses to classify all living organisms into species. Closely related species belong to the same genus, and related genuses are grouped into families, and so on. Brent Berlin, who studied ethnobiology (indigenous ways of naming and codifying living things) of the Tzeltal Maya, has argued that the Tzeltal and most societies for whom we have data divide living things into groups based on shared morphological characteristics as the Linnaen system does. Based on these findings, Berlin concluded that all human classification systems were basically reflective of an underlying cognitive structure of the human brain that organizes information in systematic ways—in other words, that all human minds more or less think alike.
Page reference: How Does Non-Western Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science?

a. Humans have a wide range of variation when it comes to classifying things.

*b. All human classification systems are reflective of an underlying cognitive structure of the human brain that organizes information in systematic ways.

c. Humans organize information very differently depending on their environment.

d. Non-Western people do not organize scientific knowledge like Westerners do.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 25

25) The enclosure movement is important to understanding Western conservation approaches because

Feedback: For centuries, England’s countryside was characterized by fields and pastures held in common by small farmers. Between the eighteenth and mid-nineteenth centuries, the English Parliament privatized these lands in what is known as the enclosure movement. The Napoleonic Wars had driven up the prices of grain and meat, and wealthy landowners saw opportunities to create large commercial farms to take advantage of these markets. Parliament turned over formerly common lands to private ownership, evicting farmers and sending them to work on the new farms or in urban factories. Rural people who tried to continue their lifestyles were branded criminals and sent off to the penal colony of Australia. The resulting depopulation of the English countryside accompanied a shift in how people thought about the landscape. Because the countryside was no longer populated by poor and working people, the wealthy began to idealize it as a place of scenic beauty and leisure. The connection between landscape appreciation and “civilized tastes” was born.

Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

*a. it generated new ideas about scenic beauty.

b. it legitimized people who lived on the land.

c. it supported the growing population of the countryside.

d. it is no longer normative in contemporary Western cultures.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 26

26) At least six Native American groups were forcibly removed to create which national park in 1872?

Feedback: During the nineteenth century, the idea of formally preserving wilderness took root in the west-ern United States. With the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, Americans had accepted the doctrine of Manifest Destiny, which presumed that the destiny of the United States was to colonize and civilize the entire North American continent. Always self-conscious about our national identity vis-à-vis Europeans, Americans believed that the spectacular and vast resources and natural beauty of the North American continent could compete with the monuments and civilized arts of Eu-rope. Soon after the turmoil of the Civil War ended, Americans set about showing our own “civilization” by establishing formally protected areas. The Indians who relied on these wilderness areas for their subsistence were branded as uncivilized and unappreciative of nature, and they were forcibly removed. For example, the creation of Yellowstone National Park entailed the removal of six different Indian groups from park lands.
Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

a. Grand Canyon National Park

b. Glacier National Park

*c. Yellowstone National Park

d. Badlands National Park

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 27

27) How did Americans aim to showcase their “civilization” after the Civil War?

Feedback: The dominant cultural model for administering protected areas is based on the separation of hu-mans and nature, emphasizing that nature must be kept uninhabited by people. Around the world, this model has led to forced evictions of indigenous peoples living on protected landscapes, disrupting their customary livelihoods, traditional land rights, and systems of environmental management that emphasize the conservation of resources. Environmental anthropologists have studied these dynamics closely, because they often generate social conflict in communities with different cultural perspectives on and histories within the natural world, as well as different approaches toward its management and protection.
Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

a. Building museums and monuments

b. Starting wars with neighbors

*c. Establishing formally protected areas

d. Outlawing headhunting

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 28

28) European colonial regimes commonly instituted controls on native people's use of natural resources

Feedback: European colonial regimes commonly instituted controls on native people’s use of natural re-sources. The main reason was to eliminate native competition against the European businesses exploiting raw materials in the colonies. British colonial officials took landscape control a step further in East Africa, where they created “Royal Game Reserves” in which English aristocrats and colonial officers could hunt. They forcibly removed people from these areas and criminalized local people (like the Maasai) who continued hunting as “poachers.”
Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

*a. to eliminate native competition against the European businesses exploiting raw materials in the colonies.

b. because they thought the native people were too good at using resources.

c. because the colonial administrations purchased the lands where the resources were located.

d. to support indigenous land-use rights.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 28

29) Which of the following reasons explains why a collaborative approach to conservation can be so challenging?

Feedback: The dominant cultural model for administering protected areas is based on the separation of humans and nature, emphasizing that nature must be kept uninhabited by people. Around the world, this model has led to forced evictions of indigenous peoples living on protected landscapes, disrupting their customary livelihoods, traditional land rights, and systems of environmental management that emphasize the conservation of resources

Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

*a. Scientists and conservationists are often skeptical of indigenous knowledge claims.

b. Indigenous communities do not have scientifically rigorous knowledge which is necessary for conservation.

c. The fact that indigenous people often want to continue living on their land undermines conservation goals.

d. Collaboration is unnecessary for sustainable development.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 30

30) Why is Fairhead and Leach's study about landscape change in Guinea important?

Feedback: From the nineteenth century to the present, French colonial administrators, environmentalists, and development officials have interpreted this landscape as a story of once-extensive forest fragmented by rapid population growth and native mismanagement. As the forest has disappeared, the explanation goes, the savannas have been on the increase. British anthropologists James Fairhead and Melissa Leach (1996) had heard stories that suggested the opposite was happening—that savannas were retreating and forests were on the increase. So, during the 1990s, they set out to test this counterintuitive claim. Their findings con-firmed that forests are in fact increasing and that the real landscape history is a story of savannas being replaced by human-cultivated forests.

Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

a. It shows why overpopulation depletes forests.

b. It shows why the ignorance of local people causes environmental degradation.

c. It shows why sustainable development projects support forest growth.

*d. It shows why forests can increase because of human population growth and cultivation.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 31

31) Which of the following methods allowed Fairhead and Leach to make their conclusions about landscape change in Guinea?

Feedback: From the nineteenth century to the present, French colonial administrators, environmentalists, and development officials have interpreted this landscape as a story of once-extensive forest fragmented by rapid population growth and native mismanagement. As the forest has disappeared, the explanation goes, the savannas have been on the increase. British anthropologists James Fairhead and Melissa Leach (1996) had heard stories that suggested the opposite was happening—that savannas were retreating and forests were on the increase. So, during the 1990s, they set out to test this counterintuitive claim. Their findings con-firmed that forests are in fact increasing and that the real landscape history is a story of savannas being replaced by human-cultivated forests.

Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

a. Demographic surveys and still photographs

b. Rorschach tests and videos

c. Biometric cranial measurements and blood screenings

*d. Participant observation of agricultural activities and study of colonial records and aerial photographs

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 32

32) Consumer capitalism contributes to increasing ecological footprints in industrialized nations because

Feedback: The distinction between the average Indian and the average North American is the latter’s involvement in consumer capitalism. Consumer capitalism promotes the cultural ideal that people will never fully satisfy their needs, so they will continually buy more and more things in their pursuit of happiness. This cultural ideal, that a good life is defined by the accumulation of consumer goods, has enormous ecological consequences. We see these consequences in the production of goods (the extraction of nonrenewable raw materials to make consumer products); the distribution of goods (the reliance on fossil fuels to transport goods to market); and the consumption of goods (the landfills that get filled with trash). As a result, while Americans make up only about 5% of the world’s population, they consume roughly 25% of its resources.

Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

a. there is little threat of environmental impacts due to climate change.

b. it promotes the idea that people need less things to be happy.

c. goods are shipped using sustainable fuel sources.

*d. the production of goods is not sustainable and uses too many raw materials.

Type: True/False

Title: Chapter 07 Question 33

33) Ethnobiologists are primarily interested in the conservation traditions of non-Western peoples.

Feedback: Ethnobiology is the subfield of ethnoscience that studies how people in non-Western societies name and codify living things.
Page reference: How Does Non-Western Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science?

a. True

*b. False

Type: True/False

Title: Chapter 07 Question 34

34) Environmental anthropologists accept the idea that all indigenous people are environmentalists.

Feedback: Environmental anthropologists try to describe the traditional knowledge that different societies have of their natural environments, recognizing that all knowledge systems about nature, including science, are culturally based. This goal dates back to the beginnings of anthropology as a discipline.
Page reference: How Does Non-Western Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science?

a. True

*b. False

Type: True/False

Title: Chapter 07 Question 35

35) Many non-Western societies have conservation traditions that are based on distinct principles of human–nature relationship.

Feedback: Environmental anthropology is the field that studies how different societies understand, interact with, and make changes to the natural world.
Page reference: Do All People See Nature in the Same Way?

*a. True

b. False

Type: True/False

Title: Chapter 07 Question 36

36) The ecological costs of producing beef in the United States are externalized on the landscape and water resources.

Feedback: Since the 1950s, large commercial cotton plantations and cattle ranches have encroached on small farmers, pushing them into less productive land on mountain slopes. As commercial farms got larger, the size of small farms declined, causing many farmers to give up and migrate to the cities. Those who remained on their farms shifted from subsistence agriculture to growing cash crops for export. The intense pressure to produce high yields led them to deforest hillsides and aban-don soil conservation measures that take more work because they are on steep land, both of which undermine the long-term fertility of their lands. Under these conditions, the farmers found themselves in a spiral of declining environmental quality on their farms.

Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

*a. True

b. False

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 37

37) If anthropologist Roy Rappaport were studying organic farming practices in the rural United States, he would likely want to understand the

Feedback: Rappaport was a major figure in ecological anthropology. He was a pioneer in the use of systems theory for understanding human populations. In his landmark 1968 study Pigs for the Ancestors: Ritual in the Ecology of a New Guinea People, Rappaport distinguished between the insider’s mental models of human–nature relations, called “cognized models,” and models of human–nature relations identified by the observer, called “operational models.” He argues that the goal of the anthropologist is to figure out how cognized models guide behavior, and how that behavior helps people adapt to specific environmental conditions:

Page reference: How Does Non-Western Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science?

a. environmental justice angle of the organic movement.

b. policies that support organic production and wise land stewardship.

*c. understandings farmers themselves have of the landscape, as well as the understandings scientists and other outsiders have of the same landscape.

d. quality of the soil in relation to water sources.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 38

38) An anthropologist who studies the cultural landscape of Zapotec farmers of southern Mexico would be primarily interested in

Feedback: Because traditional ecological knowledge is customized to particular environments, it can also provide a highly effective basis for managing resources. For example, in the Southern Mexican state of Oaxaca, Zapotec farmers have been growing maize on the same landscape for hundreds of years. Farmers have a highly systematic understanding of how soil qualities, weather patterns, lunar phases, plant–plant interactions, and plant–insect interactions affect the growing of maize. Western scientists have discovered that Zapotec practices of intercropping (planting multiple crops together), building soil mounds for planting maize, letting the land lie fallow, and planting and harvesting by the phases of the moon all contribute to creating a highly productive and sustainable agricultural system.

Page reference: How Does Non-Western Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science?

a. their interactions with the local ecosystem.

*b. the meanings and images they have of nature that shape their farming practices.

c. the ways environmental conditions shape their actions and beliefs.

d. the ethnobiological classifications they have of their environment.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 39

39) Political ecological perspectives are applicable to all of the following except

Feedback: Political ecology is the field of study that focuses on the linkages between political-economic power, social inequality, and ecological destruction.
Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

a. the effects of traffic corridors on the air quality of an urban neighbourhood.

b. the role of peasant farmers in tropical deforestation.

*c. the relationship between high birth rates and overfishing.

d. the migration of rural people to cities because of ecological crisis in the countryside.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 40

40) If you wanted to study the history of landscape change in your community and modeled your study on the approach of Fairhead and Leach in Guinea, which method would you be most likely not to use?

Feedback: From the nineteenth century to the present, French colonial administrators, environmentalists, and development officials have interpreted this landscape as a story of once-extensive forest fragmented by rapid population growth and native mismanagement. As the forest has disappeared, the explanation goes, the savannas have been on the increase. British anthropologists James Fairhead and Melissa Leach (1996) had heard stories that suggested the opposite was happening—that savannas were retreating and forests were on the increase. So, during the 1990s, they set out to test this counterintuitive claim. Their findings con-firmed that forests are in fact increasing and that the real landscape history is a story of savannas being replaced by human-cultivated forests.

Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

a. Collection of oral histories of local people

b. Examination of aerial photos

c. Examination of census records

*d. Collection of data on species composition

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 41

41) Which of the following research projects would an ecological anthropologist be most likely to join?

Feedback: Ecological anthropology is the specific vein with environmental anthropology that studies directly the relationship between humans and natural ecosystems.

Page reference: Do All People See Nature in the Same Way?

*a. A study of how soil quality and landscape features affect farming practices

b. A comparative study of the use of “adult-child caring” metaphors in different societies

c. A study of the ways an indigenous society classifies plant life

d. The health impacts of village placements in vertical ecosystems

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 42

42) The concept of “fortress conservation” would be applicable to all of the following situations except

Feedback: These park officials practice what anthropologist Dan Brockington (2002) calls “Fortress Conservation,” an approach to conservation that assumes that people are threatening to nature, and that for nature to be pristine, the people who live there must be evicted.

Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

a. the eviction of a local community from a national park to keep it pristine in the Brazilian Amazon.

b. the criminalization of local people who practice traditional hunting in formally protected Costa Rican rain forests.

*c. the construction of ecotourist facilities to protect visitors from wandering lions in the Tanzanian savannas.

d. the prevention of pastoralists from moving through a game reserve to gain access to a waterhole during the dry season in Morocco.

Type: Short Answer

Title: Chapter 07 Question 43

43) Could you apply the concept of cultural landscape to a North American suburban community? Explain your answer.

Feedback: Cultural landscape includes the culturally specific images, knowledge, and concepts of the physical landscape that help shape human relations with that landscape.

Page reference: Do All People See Nature in the Same Way?

Type: Short Answer

Title: Chapter 07 Question 44

44) Have you ever encountered an anthropogenic landscape? Describe it. How do you know it was an anthropogenic landscape?

Feedback: Anthropogenic landscapes are the product of direct or indirect human shaping.
Page reference: Do All People See Nature in the Same Way?

Type: Short Answer

Title: Chapter 07 Question 45

45) Aside from the siting of toxic waste dumps in poor and/or minority neighborhoods, what other situations could an environmental justice perspective shed light on? Name three, and give an explanation for each.

Feedback: Environmental justice refers to a social movement addressing the linkages between racial discrimination and injustice, social equity, and environmental quality.

Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 46

46) What role do you think perspectives drawn from environmental anthropology can play in the study of climate change?

Feedback: Environmental anthropology is the field that studies how different societies understand, interact with, and make changes to the natural world.

Page reference: Do All People See Nature in the Same Way?

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 47

47) How would an environmental determinist and an anthropologist dedicated to studying cultural landscapes approach a research project on a foraging community?

Feedback: Environmental determinism is a theory that attempts to explain cultural characteristics of a group of people as a consequence of specific ecological conditions or limitations.

Page reference: Do All People See Nature in the Same Way?

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 48

48) Do Americans have traditional ecological knowledge? Explain your answer, and use examples.

Feedback: Traditional ecological knowledge refers to indigenous ecological knowledge and its relationship with resource management strategies. One of the more important findings of this field is that many ecological relations recognized by indigenous peoples are not known to Western science. One reason for Western unfamiliarity is that this knowledge often involves species that are endemic to remote regions and do not exist elsewhere. Another reason local ecological knowledge is not well known to Western science is that knowledge often resides in local languages, songs, or specialized ritual knowledge. Healers and shamans are important repositories of local plant knowledge and lore, and they may even keep their knowledge secret from other people in their own society.
Page reference: How Does Non-Western Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science?

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 49

49) What does it mean that all knowledge systems about the environment are culturally based?

Feedback: Environmental anthropologists try to describe the traditional knowledge that different societies have of their natural environments, recognizing that all knowledge systems about nature, including science, are culturally based. This goal dates back to the beginnings of anthropology as a discipline.
Page reference: How Does Non-Western Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science?

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 50

50) What forces led to the development of modern environmental conservation culture?

Feedback: The dominant cultural model for administering protected areas is based on the separation of humans and nature, emphasizing that nature must be kept uninhabited by people. Around the world, this model has led to forced evictions of indigenous peoples living on protected landscapes, disrupting their customary livelihoods, traditional land rights, and systems of environmental management that emphasize the conservation of resources. Environmental anthropologists have studied these dynamics closely, because they often generate social conflict in communities with different cultural perspectives on and histories within the natural world, as well as different approaches toward its management and protection.
Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 51

51) According to environmental anthropologists, what factors lead to the destruction of nature itself?

Feedback: European colonial regimes commonly instituted controls on native people’s use of natural re-sources. The main reason was to eliminate native competition against the European businesses exploiting raw materials in the colonies. British colonial officials took landscape control a step further in East Africa, where they created “Royal Game Reserves” in which English aristocrats and colonial officers could hunt. They forcibly removed people from these areas and criminalized local people (like the Maasai) who continued hunting as “poachers.”
Page reference: Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to Conserve Nature?

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 07 Question 52

52) According to environmental anthropologists, under what conditions can a society have sustainable relations with the natural world?

Feedback: Political ecology is the field of study that focuses on the linkages between political-economic power, social inequality, and ecological destruction.
Page reference: How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental Destruction?