Chapter 14: Nonexperimental Quantitative Research

Test Bank

Multiple Choice

1. The post hoc fallacy is ______.

A. because B preceded A, A caused B

B. because A preceded B, A caused B

C. A and B must be related in order to state that A caused B

D. you cannot do post hoc analysis for all conditions

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Steps in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Easy

2. By definition, nonexperimental research is different from experimental research in that ______.

A. no dependent variables are measured in nonexperimental research studies

B. no hypotheses are tested in nonexperimental research studies

C. nonexperimental research studies do not have independent variables

D. independent variables are not manipulated in nonexperimental research

Learning Objective: 14-1: State the definition of nonexperimental quantitative research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Introduction

Difficulty Level: Medium

3. The first “simple case” of nonexperimental research involves ______.

A. one quantitative independent variable and one quantitative dependent variable

B. one manipulated independent variable and one quantitative dependent variable

C. one nonmanipulated categorical independent variable and one quantitative dependent variable

D. one nonmanipulated quantitative independent variable and one categorical dependent variable

Learning Objective: 14-1: State the definition of nonexperimental quantitative research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Simple Cases of Nonexperimental Quantitative Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

4. The second “simple case” of nonexperimental research involves ______.

A. one nonmanipulated quantitative independent variable and one quantitative dependent variable

B. one manipulated independent variable and one quantitative dependent variable

C. one nonmanipulated categorical independent variable and one quantitative dependent variable

D. one nonmanipulated quantitative independent variable and one categorical dependent variable

Learning Objective: 14-1: State the definition of nonexperimental quantitative research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Simple Cases of Nonexperimental Quantitative Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

5. When changes in X tend to produce changes in Y, this is called ______.

A. perfect causality

B. a post hoc fallacy

C. a spurious relationship

D. probabilistic causation

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Hard

6. The “third-variable problem” refers to ______.

A. the difficulty created by manipulating three variables

B. the difficulty created when doing nonexperimental studies with three variables

C. the possibility that an extraneous variable account for the relationship between two variables

D. the possibility that three variables might cause a change in the dependent variable

Learning Objective: 14-4: Explain the “third-variable problem.”

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Medium

7. One way to lessen the third-variable problem is to ______.

A. use a control technique to deal with the identified third variable(s)

B. do quasi-experimental research

C. only do studies with two variables

D. use categorical independent variables only

Learning Objective: 14-4: Explain the “third-variable problem.”

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Hard

8. In Hector’s study, he discovered that the relationship between two of his variables was due to another variable he did not measure. Hector’s study had ______.

A. a significant relationship

B. a causative relationship

C. a direct causation

D. a spurious relationship

Learning Objective: 14-4: Explain the “third-variable problem.”

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Hard

9. When a relationship between two variables is partly due to a third variable, this is labeled a ______.

A. a spurious relationship

B. a direct relationship

C. a partially spurious relationship

D. a causal relationship

Learning Objective: 14-4: Explain the “third-variable problem.”

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Easy

10. The number of police officers and the number of crimes are positively related. This relationship is ______.

A. a causal relationship

B. a direct relationship

C. a probabilistic causal relation

D. a spurious relationship

Learning Objective: 14-4: Explain the “third-variable problem.”

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Hard

11. A research study found that parental household income is related to children’s school achievement. Which of the following would suggest that the relationship is completely spurious?

A. There is no relationship once you statistically control for parent education.

B. There is a relationship even after statistically controlling parent education.

C. There is a relationship even when parent education is held constant.

D. There is a smaller relationship once parent education is taken into account.

Learning Objective: 14-4: Explain the “third-variable problem.”

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Medium

12. A research study found that household income is related to children’s school achievement. Which of the following would suggest a partially spurious relationship?

A. There is no relationship once you statistically control for parent education.

B. Parent income and school achievement are unrelated to parent education but related to each other.

C. There is a relationship even when parent education is held constant.

D. There is a smaller relationship once parent education is taken into account.

Learning Objective: 14-4: Explain the “third-variable problem.”

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Medium

13. A researcher studies the relationship between early reading and later school achievement. She decides that a potentially important extraneous variable is IQ. In developing her groups for her study, she pairs each child who was an early reader with a child of the same IQ level who was not an early reader. The control technique she used was ______.

A. holding the extraneous variable constant

B. statistical control

C. matching

D. random assignment

Learning Objective: 14-5: List and briefly describe the three major techniques of control that are used in nonexperimental research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Matching

Difficulty Level: Hard

14. A researcher investigates the relationship between teaching style and student achievement in elementary school teachers. Since she is concerned that gender might be a confounding factor in her study, she includes only female teachers. The control technique she used was ______.

A. holding the extraneous variable constant

B. statistical control

C. matching

D. random assignment

Learning Objective: 14-5: List and briefly describe the three major techniques of control that are used in nonexperimental research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Holding the Extraneous Variable Constant

Difficulty Level: Hard

15. Analysis of covariance is one type of ______.

A. matching

B. random assignment

C. statistical control

D. the third-variable problem

Learning Objective: 14-5: List and briefly describe the three major techniques of control that are used in nonexperimental research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Statistical Control

Difficulty Level: Medium

16. Partial correlation analysis involves ______.

A. examining the relationship between two or more variables controlling for additional variables statistically

B. including only one group in a correlational analysis

C. matching participants on potential confounding variables

D. limiting the sample to individuals at a constant level of an extraneous variable

Learning Objective: 14-5: List and briefly describe the three major techniques of control that are used in nonexperimental research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Statistical Control

Difficulty Level: Medium

17. The basic form of analysis of covariance is used to examine ______.

A. the relationship between two categorical variables without control

B. the relationship between one categorical independent variable and one quantitative dependent variable, controlling for one or more extraneous variables

C. the relationship between two quantitative variables

D. how the variances for two groups differ

Learning Objective: 14-5: List and briefly describe the three major techniques of control that are used in nonexperimental research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Statistical Control

Difficulty Level: Medium

18. Using matching as a control strategy ______.

A. is typically easy because correct matches are readily available

B. does not require that the researcher match on all the needed variables

C. limits generalization because the sample was chosen for matching, not generalization

D. increases the generalization of the study in which it was used

Learning Objective: 14-5: List and briefly describe the three major techniques of control that are used in nonexperimental research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Matching

Difficulty Level: Medium

19. When data are collected at one point in time from different types of people, this is called a ______.

A. longitudinal study

B. prospective study

C. panel study

D. cross-sectional study

Learning Objective: 14-6: Compare and contrast cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, and retrospective research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Cross-Sectional Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

20. A problem with cross-sectional data is that ______.

A. the data cannot be collected on more than one variable

B. independent variables cannot be differentiated from dependent variables because there is no theory

C. it is harder to establish cause and effect, because the data are not collected over time

D. there is differential attrition

Learning Objective: 14-6: Compare and contrast cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, and retrospective research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Cross-Sectional Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

21. A researcher does a cross-sectional study and she compares the recycling behavior in younger and older individuals. She finds that older people are more likely to recycle than younger people. She concludes that with age, people become more likely to recycle. A problem with her conclusion is that ______.

A. there was an attrition error

B. according to her results, age is unrelated to recycling behavior

C. her older participants were from a different cohort or different generation than her younger participants and this might be the reason a difference was observed rather than the process of aging

D. there is no problem with her conclusion

Learning Objective: 14-6: Compare and contrast cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, and retrospective research.

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Cross-Sectional Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

22. A researcher took independent samples from a population every year over a period of 5 years. He asked the participants in the samples the same questions every year. This study was ______.

A. a panel study

B. a cross-sectional study

C. a trend study

D. an experimental study

Learning Objective: 14-7: Compare and contrast the two types of longitudinal research.

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

23. A researcher established a sample of participants who were all born in 2000. She asks them questions every 5 years. This is an example of ______.

A. a panel study

B. a cross-sectional study

C. a trend study

D. a posttest-only experimental study

Learning Objective: 14-7: Compare and contrast the two types of longitudinal research.

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

24. A synonym for panel study is ______.

A. cross-sectional study

B. trend study

C. retrospective study

D. prospective study

Learning Objective: 14-7: Compare and contrast the two types of longitudinal research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

25. One potential problem with prospective studies is ______.

A. differential attrition

B. they deal with different independent samples at each point in time

C. causal relations are difficult to show because it is hard to establish which factor occurs first

D. people have a difficult time remembering their previous experiences

Learning Objective: 14-7: Compare and contrast the two types of longitudinal research.

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research

Difficulty Level: Easy

26. Prospective studies ______.

A. are more expensive than cross-sectional studies to carry out

B. deal with different independent samples at each point in time

C. have difficulty showing causal relations because it is hard to establish which factor occurs first

D. participants have a difficult time remembering their previous experiences

Learning Objective: 14-7: Compare and contrast the two types of longitudinal research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

27. Retrospective studies have problems with ______.

A. differential attrition

B. sealing with different independent samples at each point in time

C. being expensive to carry out

D. verifying the accuracy of accounts of past behavior

Learning Objective: 14-7: Compare and contrast the two types of longitudinal research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

28. The goal of a research study is to provide an accurate picture of the status or characteristics of a situation or phenomenon. This study is best described as ______.

A. descriptive

B. predictive

C. explanatory

D. confirmatory

Learning Objective: 14-8: Identify descriptive research studies, predictive research studies, and explanatory research studies when examining published research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Descriptive Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

29. The directors of a graduate program in educational research wish to see what types of jobs their graduates take after they finish their program. They randomly sample students from the program and have them fill out questionnaires with items asking about the types of jobs they have had. They are also asked to list the roles they play in their current positions. This project is best described as having what kind of objective?

A. descriptive

B. predictive

C. explanatory

D. confirmatory

Learning Objective: 14-8: Identify descriptive research studies, predictive research studies, and explanatory research studies when examining published research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Descriptive Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

30. A researcher is interested in researching what kinds of factors are important for someone to succeed in air traffic control training. Before the training program, she gives the students a battery of tests including personality measures. She then looks at which of these is related to successful completion of the program. The main purpose of this research was ______.

A. descriptive

B. predictive

C. explanatory

D. longitudinal

Learning Objective: 14-8: Identify descriptive research studies, predictive research studies, and explanatory research studies when examining published research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Predictive Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

31. George is attempting to design a research study in which he uses grades in school and teachers’ ratings to differentiate who will go to college and who will not. His research purpose is primarily ______.

A. descriptive

B. predictive

C. explanatory

D. confirmatory

Learning Objective: 14-8: Identify descriptive research studies, predictive research studies, and explanatory research studies when examining published research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Predictive Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

32. A researcher is interested in developing a model of school achievement that includes home and school factors. She hypothesizes that some factors will have direct effects on achievement, whereas others will have indirect effects through other intervening variables. The main purpose of this research is ______.

A. descriptive

B. predictive

C. explanatory

D. exploratory

Learning Objective: 14-8: Identify descriptive research studies, predictive research studies, and explanatory research studies when examining published research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

33. When research is done to test hypotheses and theories about how and why phenomena operate as they do, then the primary purpose of such research is ______.

A. descriptive

B. predictive

C. explanatory

D. exploratory

Learning Objective: 14-8: Identify descriptive research studies, predictive research studies, and explanatory research studies when examining published research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

34. Causal modeling refers to ______.

A. a causal comparative research model where multiple groups are compared

B. experimental research that involves social learning theory

C. a form of explanatory research in which the researcher hypothesizes a causal model and then tests it empirically

D. a form of descriptive research in which the researcher has no hypotheses or model

Learning Objective: 14-8: Identify descriptive research studies, predictive research studies, and explanatory research studies when examining published research.

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Easy

35. A path coefficient refers to ______.

A. a quantitative index providing information about a direct effect

B. a quantitative index providing information about indirect effects

C. a quantitative index providing information about total effects

D. an index of the overall fit of a model that is not specific to any particular variable

Learning Objective: 14-8: Identify descriptive research studies, predictive research studies, and explanatory research studies when examining published research.

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Easy

36. A researcher is interested in developing a model to predict first-grade reading achievement. She includes in her model the following four factors: (a) the child’s level of language development, (b) the highest level of education of a parent in the child’s household, (c) the amount of time that the parent reads with the child, and (d) the quality of teaching that the child has received. The child’s level of language, the quality of teaching, and the amount of time a parent reads to the child correlate with reading achievement. The highest level of education correlates with the amount of time the parent reads with the child but does not correlate with reading achievement. Which of the following variables only has an indirect effect on reading achievement?

A. parent education

B. time joint reading

C. quality of teaching

D. language development

Learning Objective: 14-9: Explain the difference between a direct effect and an indirect effect in causal modeling.

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

37. A researcher is interested in developing a model to predict first-grade reading achievement. She includes in her model the following four factors: (a) the child’s level of language development, (b) the highest level of education of a parent in the child’s household, (c) the amount of time that the parent reads with the child, and (d) the quality of teaching that the child has received. The child’s level of language, the quality of teaching, and the amount of time a parent reads to the child correlate with reading achievement. The highest level of education correlates with both the amount of time the parent reads with the child and reading achievement. Which of the following variables has both a direct and indirect effect on reading achievement?

A. parent education

B. time joint reading

C. quality of teaching

D. language development

Learning Objective: 14-9: Explain the difference between a direct effect and an indirect effect in causal modeling.

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

38. A researcher is interested in developing a model to predict first-grade reading achievement. She includes in her model the following factors: (a) the child’s level of language development, (b) the highest level of education of a parent in the child’s household, and (c) the quality of teaching the child receives. The highest level of education correlates with both the child’s level of language development and reading achievement. The quality of teaching correlates with reading achievement but does not correlate with the other predictors. Which of the following variables has only a direct effect on reading achievement?

A. parent education

B. the child’s level of language development

C. quality of teaching

D. All variables have a direct and indirect effect.

Learning Objective: 14-9: Explain the difference between a direct effect and an indirect effect in causal modeling.

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

39. Heidi conducted research on success in mathematics. She found that perseverance, motivation, and number sense had a direct effect on mathematics success. Student attitudes about math had an indirect effect. An indirect effect refers to ______.

A. the effects of a variable directly on another

B. the effect of the variable at the origin of an arrow on the variable at the receiving end of the arrow

C. the effect of a variable that occurs through an intervening variable

D. the path coefficient indexing the direct effect

Learning Objective: 14-9: Explain the difference between a direct effect and an indirect effect in causal modeling.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

40. An intervening variable is ______.

A. the dependent variable in a simple causal model

B. a variable that occurs between two others in a causal chain

C. an experimental variable in a causal model

D. spurious variable

Learning Objective: 14-9: Explain the difference between a direct effect and an indirect effect in causal modeling.

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Easy

41. Which of the following statements about nonexperimental research is true?

A. Nonexperimental research includes manipulation of the independent variable.

B. Nonexperimental research is often conducted in laboratory settings.

C. The researcher studies how variables are related in nonexperimental research.

D. Nonexperimental research always contains multiple independent and dependent variables.

Learning Objective: 14-8: Identify descriptive research studies, predictive research studies, and explanatory research studies when examining published research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Introduction

Difficulty Level: Hard

42. If a researcher is interested in cause-and-effect relationships, which design should she use?

A. the first simple case of nonexperimental research

B. the second simple case of nonexperimental research

C. Either the first or second case of nonexperimental research would be sufficient for this study.

D. Neither the first nor second case of nonexperimental research can provide evidence of causality.

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Simple Cases of Nonexperimental Quantitative Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

43. Which of the three required conditions for cause and effect is relatively easy to establish in nonexperimental research?

A. Condition 1 (relationship)

B. Condition 2 (proper time order)

C. Condition 3 (lack of alternative explanation)

D. All three conditions are quite easy to establish.

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Applying the Three Required Conditions for Causation in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

44. Nonexperimental research cannot involve which of the following?

A. manipulation of an independent variable

B. comparison groups

C. explanations of the relationship between variables

D. descriptions of the relationships between variables

Learning Objective: 14-1: State the definition of nonexperimental quantitative research.

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

45. If a researcher finds an indirect effect, he should also be able to identify ______.

A. an intervening variable

B. a moderator variable

C. an interaction variable

D. an extraneous variable

Learning Objective: 14-9: Explain the difference between a direct effect and an indirect effect in causal modeling.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

46. In which form of research are the data collected at a single time point?

A. panel studies

B. trend studies

C. longitudinal studies

D. cross-sectional studies

Learning Objective: 14-6: Compare and contrast cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, and retrospective research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Cross-Sectional Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

47. The correlation between teachers’ salaries and the price of liquor is ______.

A. causal

B. spurious

C. predictive

D. none of these

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Applying the Three Required Conditions for Causation in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

48. There is a relationship between the amount of fire damage (dependent variable) and the number of trucks responding to the fire (independent variables). It is a positive relationship. If one controls for the size of fire, however, this original relationship will decrease or disappear. This is an example of using which procedure?

A. holding an extraneous variable constant

B. causal modeling

C. statistical control

D. matching

Learning Objective: 14-5: List and briefly describe the three major techniques of control that are used in nonexperimental research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Statistical Control

Difficulty Level: Hard

49. All of the following statements are true of nonexperimental research projects except one. Which one is not true?

A. Evidence for causality is more tentative.

B. Evidence for causality is less important.

C. One must control for confounding variables if one is to obtain some evidence for causality.

D. Evidence for causality is less conclusive.

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Applying the Three Required Conditions for Causation in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

50. A post hoc fallacy means a researcher has made what type of error?

A. an error in the design of the pretest and posttest phase of the research

B. an error based on the belief that posttest scores can be understood without ANCOVA results

C. the belief that what came first necessarily caused whatever came after

D. an error of researcher ethics where the researcher has to inform participants of a change in the study

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Steps in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

51. At the conclusion of a study, a researcher was able to claim that a finding was statistically significant. What did this mean for anyone who read their report?

A. The research finding was probably not attributable to chance alone and thus reflected a real relationship.

B. The relationship in question is definitely a causal relationship.

C. There was no effect as a result of the independent variable.

D. The research finding is as likely as not to be caused by the independent variable but should be reported so that others will know this.

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Simple Cases of Nonexperimental Quantitative Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

52. A researcher has identified multiple rival explanations as part of her research project. She is ______.

A. planning for extra hypotheses

B. using a method of multiple working hypotheses

C. researching hypotheses for extra variables

D. exploring multiple causation for research

Learning Objective: 14-5: List and briefly describe the three major techniques of control that are used in nonexperimental research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Hard

53. A researcher surveyed all of the young people in a juvenile detention center and found that almost all of them had eaten white bread and drank Kool-Aid as young children. He concluded that these two items are causes of some of the teenagers’ current problems. This is an example of what kind of reasoning?

A. multiple hypotheses

B. probabilistic causes

C. curvilinear relationship

D. post hoc fallacy

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Steps in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

54. Tina is conducting a nonexperimental research study. She is following a group of students born in 2005 through school and collecting data on their academic achievement each year. She will report on the patterns she sees in the data. Tina’s study can be described as a ______.

A. cross-sectional, descriptive study

B. cross-sectional, predictive study

C. longitudinal, explanatory study

D. longitudinal, descriptive study

Learning Objective: 14-10: Draw the typology of nonexperimental quantitative research formed by crossing the time dimension with the research objective dimension.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective

Difficulty Level: Hard

55. Educational researchers are interested in determining ______.

A. the impact of chance alone

B. probabilistic causes

C. post hoc fallacies

D. spurious correlations

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Easy

56. In nonexperimental research, the most common way to control for extraneous variables is through the use of ______.

A. matching

B. holding extraneous variables constant

C. statistical control

D. using longitudinal designs

Learning Objective: 14-5: List and briefly describe the three major techniques of control that are used in nonexperimental research.

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Statistical Control

Difficulty Level: Easy

57. Margaret worked on a research study where she asked children in different classrooms in the third, fourth, and fifth grades at her school to read a passage aloud during the spring time. She recorded the number of words they read per minute and graphed the data. This is an example of what type of research?

A. cross-sectional, descriptive

B. longitudinal, descriptive

C. retrospective, explanatory

D. cross-sectional, predictive

Learning Objective: 14-10: Draw the typology of nonexperimental quantitative research formed by crossing the time dimension with the research objective dimension.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective

Difficulty Level: Hard

58. Dr. Pugh is conducting a research study on student’s mathematical abilities. Participants are tested once a year and asked to solve the same math problems every year. This is an example of a ______.

A. panel study

B. cross-sectional study

C. prospective study

D. trend study

Learning Objective: 14-7: Compare and contrast the two types of longitudinal research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

59. What type of research are trend, panel, and prospective studies?

A. cross-sectional

B. retrospective

C. longitudinal

D. path

Learning Objective: 14-7: Compare and contrast the two types of longitudinal research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

60. Differential attrition is a problem in which type of research study?

A. panel studies

B. cross-sectional studies

C. trend studies

D. retrospective studies

Learning Objective: 14-6: Compare and contrast cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, and retrospective research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research | Cross-Sectional Research | Retrospective Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

61. Marilyn developed a sample of individuals who had completed graduate school. She then had them complete questionnaires pertaining to elementary school, middle school, high school, and college. Marilyn’s design is ______.

A. cross-sectional

B. prospective

C. longitudinal

D. retrospective

Learning Objective: 14-6: Compare and contrast cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, and retrospective research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research | Cross-Sectional Research | Retrospective Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

62. Which of the following is an example of categorical independent variable that cannot be manipulated?

A. student’s special education status

B. high school GPA

C. score on a personality test

D. peer rankings of friendships

Learning Objective: 14-2: List categorical and quantitative independent variables that cannot be manipulated by a researcher.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

63. In nonexperimental research, which type of an independent variable is IQ?

A. categorical

B. quantitative

C. achievement

D. outcome

Learning Objective: 14-2: List categorical and quantitative independent variables that cannot be manipulated by a researcher.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

64. Jerry does a nonexperimental study where he examines how the amount of parent involvement predicts school achievement. He measures parent involvement by ratings on a summated rating scale where higher scores mean higher involvement. In this study, what is the nature and role of parent involvement?

A. categorical, manipulated, independent variable

B. categorical, not manipulated, independent variable

C. quantitative, not manipulated, independent variable

D. quantitative, manipulated, dependent variable

Learning Objective: 14-2: List categorical and quantitative independent variables that cannot be manipulated by a researcher.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

65. Marie does a nonexperimental study looking at how parental income predicts children’s school achievement. She takes the parent annual income reported by her participants and divides them into three mutually exclusive groups: low, medium, and high. In this study, income is examined in what way?

A. categorical, manipulated, independent variable

B. categorical, not manipulated, independent variable

C. quantitative, not manipulated, independent variable

D. quantitative, manipulated, independent variable

Learning Objective: 14-2: List categorical and quantitative independent variables that cannot be manipulated by a researcher.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

66. Jenelle does a study where she decides to find out how well intrinsic motivation predicts performance on a problem-solving task. She is trying to decide whether she will analyze the scores on the scale of intrinsic motivation or categorize the students into two groups: Intrinsically motivated and extrinsically motivated based on cut score from the scale. If she decides to categorize students, what concerns might she have?

A. She may lose important information about how the motivation variable relates to problem–solving.

B. Categorizing the variable makes the relationship more complicated.

C. She cannot determine a relationship between a categorical variable and a dependent variable.

D. She cannot randomly assign students to different levels of motivation.

Learning Objective: 14-2: List categorical and quantitative independent variables that cannot be manipulated by a researcher.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

67. Melissa does a nonexperimental study looking at how parental income predicts children’s school achievement. She has parents report their income in dollars and correlates income amounts with achievement test scores. In this study, income is examined in what way?

A. categorical, manipulated, independent variable

B. categorical, not manipulated, independent variable

C. quantitative, not manipulated, independent variable

D. quantitative, manipulated, independent variable

Learning Objective: 14-2: List categorical and quantitative independent variables that cannot be manipulated by a researcher.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

68. Wiley’s study described the achievement test scores and reading grades of a cross-sectional sample of elementary school students. He took the students’ scores on an achievement test and divided the students into three groups based on their scores: high, medium, and low. He then described the reading scores of the students in the three groups. Why did he do this?

A. to turn his study into an experiment by having a categorical independent variable

B. because every research study has to have a categorical variable

C. to create a categorical variable from a quantitative variable

D. to create a quantitative variable from a categorical variable

Learning Objective: 14-2: List categorical and quantitative independent variables that cannot be manipulated by a researcher.

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

69. Graeme studies how the home environment provided by parents influences their children’s school achievement. Which of the following statements expresses a third-variable problem that might exist in this study?

A. When we hold parental cognitive ability constant, home environment predicts achievement.

B. In her study, home environment does not correlate with achievement.

C. Parents who have higher cognitive ability have children who achieve higher. and the impact of home environment is really the impact of cognitive ability.

D. Home environment predicts achievement even after controlling for cognitive ability.

Learning Objective: 14-4: Explain the “third-variable problem.”

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Hard

70. The third-variable problem is reflective of which of the conditions of causality?

A. temporal antecedence

B. the relationship condition

C. the lack of alternative explanation condition

D. the third-variable problem does not relate to the conditions of causality

Learning Objective: 14-4: Explain the “third-variable problem.”

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Medium

71. Samantha has a theory that prenatal development and early attachment are predictors of reading achievement in third grade. She collects data on prenatal development, looks at parent–child attachment at 1 year, and then measures reading achievement at the end of third grade in a cohort of children. What pair of terms best describes her study?

A. cross-sectional, descriptive

B. longitudinal, descriptive

C. longitudinal, explanatory

D. cross-sectional, predictive

Learning Objective: 14-10: Draw the typology of nonexperimental quantitative research formed by crossing the time dimension with the research objective dimension.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective

Difficulty Level: Hard

72. Joyce is interested in learning about the school achievement of children of refugees. She explores several variables in a onetime assessment of a group of such children who arrive in the United States during a 3-month period. She wants to find out what variables are associated with school achievement. What pair of terms best describes her study?

A. cross-sectional, descriptive

B. longitudinal, descriptive

C. longitudinal, explanatory

D. cross-sectional, predictive

Learning Objective: 14-10: Draw the typology of nonexperimental quantitative research formed by crossing the time dimension with the research objective dimension.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective

Difficulty Level: Hard

73. Gloria carried out a study to see what happens to gifted children when they become adults. She studies a group of 200 gifted children and follows them from grade 6 until they are aged 30 years. She examines their school performance and attitudes until they become adults and then examines their occupational choice as adults. What pair of terms best describes her study?

A. cross-sectional, descriptive

B. longitudinal, descriptive

C. longitudinal, explanatory

D. cross-sectional, predictive

Learning Objective: 14-10: Draw the typology of nonexperimental quantitative research formed by crossing the time dimension with the research objective dimension.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective

Difficulty Level: Hard

74. Diego does a study where he wants to examine the study strategies used by medical students. He carries out a onetime survey of the study strategies in second-year medical students. What pair of terms best describes his study?

A. cross-sectional, descriptive

B. longitudinal, descriptive

C. longitudinal, explanatory

D. cross-sectional, predictive

Learning Objective: 14-10: Draw the typology of nonexperimental quantitative research formed by crossing the time dimension with the research objective dimension.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective

Difficulty Level: Medium

75. Corey does a study where he wants to look at students who have dropped out of college versus those who have not. He wants to find out what variables predict dropout. He asks them to recall their motivation level when they finished high school. He asks the students to recall their high school performance and interest in mathematics, science, social studies, and English language arts as well as any disciplinary issues they had in high school. What pair of terms best describes his study?

A. cross-sectional predictive

B. longitudinal predictive

C. retrospective descriptive

D. retrospective predictive

Learning Objective: 14-10: Draw the typology of nonexperimental quantitative research formed by crossing the time dimension with the research objective dimension.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective

Difficulty Level: Hard

True/False

1. Establishing the third required condition for cause and effect (lack of alternative explanation) can also be viewed as eliminating the presence of “the third-variable problem.”

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Medium

2. A typology of nonexperimental research was created by crossing the time dimension (retrospective, cross-sectional, and longitudinal) and the research objective dimension (descriptive, predictive, and explanatory). This typology includes nine specific types of research.

Learning Objective: 14-10: Draw the typology of nonexperimental quantitative research formed by crossing the time dimension with the research objective dimension.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective

Difficulty Level: Medium

3. Analysis of covariance is a “special case” of the general linear model.

Learning Objective: 14-5: List and briefly describe the three major techniques of control that are used in nonexperimental research.

Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

Answer Location: Statistical Control

Difficulty Level: Easy

4. A spurious correlation is a noncausal correlation.

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Applying the Three Required Conditions for Causation in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

5. In order to have an indirect relationship, there must be at least one intervening (i.e., mediating) variable.

Learning Objective: 14-9: Explain the difference between a direct effect and an indirect effect in causal modeling.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

6. Matching and statistical control are important techniques of control used in nonexperimental quantitative research.

Learning Objective: 14-5: List and briefly describe the three major techniques of control that are used in nonexperimental research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Matching | Statistical Control

Difficulty Level: Medium

7. The purpose of identifying multiple rival explanations is to force the researcher to consider and examine multiple possible answers before reaching a conclusion.

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Medium

8. In a longitudinal study, data are collected at one point in time on several variables.

Learning Objective: 14-7: Compare and contrast the two types of longitudinal research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

9. In a cross-sectional study, data are collected at multiple time points and comparisons are made across time.

Learning Objective: 14-7: Compare and contrast the two types of longitudinal research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Cross-Sectional Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

10. In nonexperimental research, there is no random assignment nor manipulation of an independent variable.

Learning Objective: 14-1: State the definition of nonexperimental quantitative research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Quasi-Experimental Research Designs

Difficulty Level: Medium

11. High school GPA is an example of a categorical variable.

Learning Objective: 14-2: List categorical and quantitative independent variables that cannot be manipulated by a researcher.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

12. In a retrospective study, data are collected that represent present and past status on variables. Generally speaking, the idea is to find out what past conditions helped produce a present condition.

Learning Objective: 14-6: Compare and contrast cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, and retrospective research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Retrospective Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

13. When increased amounts, or greater strength, of the treatment result in increased amounts of response on the dependent variable, we say that we have a strong or clear “dose-response relationship.”

Learning Objective: 14-6: Compare and contrast cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, and retrospective research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

14. When the comparison groups have become nonequivalent because of participants dropping rather than because of a treatment condition, we call it differential attrition.

Learning Objective: 14-6: Compare and contrast cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, and retrospective research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

15. Compared to experimental research, evidence for cause and effect is weaker in nonexperimental research.

Learning Objective: 14-3: Evaluate evidence for cause and effect using the three required conditions for cause-and-effect relationships.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Applying the Three Required Conditions for Causation in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

16. An example of a longitudinal exploratory study would be using causal modeling to test the hypothesis that boys do better in math using a sample of students in Grades 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12.

Learning Objective: 14-10: Draw the typology of nonexperimental quantitative research formed by crossing the time dimension with the research objective dimension.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Explanatory Research | Cross-Sectional Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

17. A research team developed a study to help their university predict who was likely to complete a graduate degree after being accepted into the program. This would be an example of a descriptive study.

Learning Objective: 14-8: Identify descriptive research studies, predictive research studies, and explanatory research studies when examining published research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Predictive Research | Descriptive Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

18. A school system conducted a study to see how students valued their education by asking graduates to rate their experiences in each grade. This would be an example of a longitudinal study.

Learning Objective: 14-8: Identify descriptive research studies, predictive research studies, and explanatory research studies when examining published research.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Retrospective Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

19. Dr. Henry plans a study to determine how and why the use of laptop computers might help students perform better in school. This would be an example of explanatory research.

Learning Objective: 14-8: Identify descriptive research studies, predictive research studies, and explanatory research studies when examining published research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Explanatory Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

20. If a researcher finds evidence of an intervening variable, she has found evidence of a direct effect involving that variable.

Learning Objective: 14-9: Explain the difference between a direct effect and an indirect effect in causal modeling.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Explanatory Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

21. When an extraneous variable influences the relationship between the independent and dependent variable, there is a third-variable problem.

Learning Objective: 14-4: Explain the “third-variable problem.”

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Medium

22. Panel research is a type of cross-sectional research.

Learning Objective: 14-6: Compare and contrast cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, and retrospective research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research | Cross-Sectional Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

23. Nonexperimental research follows the same steps as experimental research.

Learning Objective: 14-1: State the definition of nonexperimental quantitative research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Steps in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

24. William took a personality test and received an introversion score of 78. This introversion score is a categorical variable.

Learning Objective: 14-2: List categorical and quantitative independent variables that cannot be manipulated by a researcher.

Cognitive Domain: Application

Answer Location: Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Hard

25. A panel study is one in which independent samples of participants answer the same questions at one point in time about something that had happened in their past.

Learning Objective: 14-7: Compare and contrast the two types of longitudinal research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Longitudinal Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

Essay

1. Compare and contrast quantitative and categorical independent variables. Give at least one example of each.

Learning Objective: 14-2: List categorical and quantitative independent variables that cannot be manipulated by a researcher.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

2. What is meant by the “third-variable problem?” Why is it important?

Learning Objective: 14-4: Explain the “third-variable problem.”

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Difficulty Level: Medium

3. Define cross-sectional, longitudinal, and retrospective research. Give at least one example of each type of research

Learning Objective: 14-6: Compare and contrast cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, and retrospective research.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: The Time Dimension in Nonexperimental Research Design

Difficulty Level: Medium

4. Explain the difference between an indirect and direct effect in causal modeling.

Learning Objective: 14-9: Explain the difference between a direct effect and an indirect effect in causal modeling.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Difficulty Level: Medium

5. Name the nonexperimental research designs that emerge from crossing the time and research objective dimensions. Give an example of three of these designs.

Learning Objective: 14-10: Draw the typology of nonexperimental quantitative research formed by crossing the time dimension with the research objective dimension.

Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

Answer Location: Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective.

Difficulty Level: Medium

6. What are the main sources of control in nonexperimental research? Discuss their logic and limitations.

Learning Objective: 14-5: List and briefly describe the three major techniques of control that are used in nonexperimental research.

Cognitive Domain: Analysis

Answer Location: Techniques of Control in Nonexperimental Research (i.e., How to Design Strong Nonexperimental Research)

Difficulty Level: Medium