Test Questions & Answers Intellectual Functioning Chapter 6

CHAPTER 6

INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONING

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Chapter 6 is divided into six main sections. The first section, views of intelligence, covers recent thinking that intelligence is not a single unitary factor but rather is composed of different abilities. With regard to the aging process, several views have been prominent. One is that intelligence can be fluid (a function of the central nervous system) or crystallized (a function of education and culturally based learning experiences). A similar dual-process model postulates that the mechanics of intelligence are genetically and biologically controlled (the hardware of the mind), whereas the pragmatics of intelligence consist of culturally based knowledge (the software of the mind). In general, fluid intelligence and mechanics show age-related decline, whereas crystallized intelligence and pragmatics are maintained. However, the dual-process model emphasizes that the pragmatics can be used to compensate for any decline in the mechanics of intelligence.

The second section of the chapter focuses on the psychometric approach to intelligence, which typically assesses intellectual abilities by using tests that yield quantitative scores. Two psychometric tests frequently used in aging studies are the Primary Mental Abilities (PMA) test and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). The WAIS-R consists of 11 subtests that are described in detail. The six verbal subsets tend to tap crystallized abilities, or the pragmatics of intelligence. The five performance subtests tend to tap fluid abilities, or the mechanics of intelligence. A distinction is made between scores on the subtests and IQ, which is an index of an individual test taker’s scores in relation to the scores of his/her age peers. Scores on such tests are only meaningful if test takers are members of the population on whom the test was standardized.

The third section of the chapter describes the evolution in perspectives of researchers who study aging and intelligence. Early on, it was assumed that intelligence declined after reaching a peak in young adulthood. Later it was recognized that the method of studying age and intelligence can influence the findings and also that there is more than one kind of intelligence. As indicated by the classic aging pattern, crystallized abilities tend to be age-insensitive so are maintained with age. In contrast, fluid abilities tend to be age-sensitive and to decline with age. On the WAIS-R, the verbal subtests are crystallized, whereas the performance subtests are fluid. The life-span development perspective also emphasizes that intellectual abilities can be influenced by different sets of factors and thus can vary in their developmental course. However, this perspective emphasizes that abilities can be modified (that is, they are plastic) and also that gains in some abilities can compensate for loss in others.

In the fourth section of the chapter, maximizing intellectual functioning in older adulthood, there is further discussion of plasticity in terms of how intellectual ability must be measured on more than one occasion, how test scores can be modified through practice and training , and how abilities that are maintained or improved abilities may compensate for those that decline. Maintained abilities may be those most exercised in a particular culture, and abilities that decline may be those that are least exercised.

The fifth section of the chapter covers individual differences among older adults in level of intellectual functioning. Such individual differences include health, level of education, type of occupation, income level, level of satisfaction with accomplishments, intactness of family, and level of engagement in challenging activities. The disuse hypothesis of cognitive aging postulates that skills and abilities get rusty if they are not used on a regular basis. This is echoed in the engagement hypothesis, which postulates that participating in novel and challenging intellectual activities prevents decline in intellectual functioning. Several longitudinal studies put these hypotheses to a test and reported some evidence to support them. However, cause-and-effect statements that engaging in challenging activities is guaranteed to prevent intellectual decline would be premature.

The sixth section of the chapter, everyday intelligence and competence, discusses whether psychometric tests have ecological validity; that is, do such tests measure the kinds of intellectual abilities older adults need in order to function well in the real world? Also, what do nonscientists think about the developmental course of intelligence over the adult life span? Interestingly, they believe that abilities can increase or decrease and also that intellectual functioning can be improved with practice and training, views in keeping with the life-span development perspective. They also endorse the engagement hypothesis in thinking that participating in activities can maintain or improve abilities. In terms of actual ability in the real world, older individuals in high-level jobs often earn lower scores on psychometric tests than their younger colleagues do. One explanation lies in the encapsulation model, which postulates that, with increasing age, people encapsulate knowledge into specific domains of expertise and they become less efficient at acquiring knowledge that does not fall into these areas.

With regard to competence in daily life, older adults must be capable of performing the tasks required to meet the demands of independent living. In this regard, a distinction is made between the lower level activities of daily living (ADL) and the higher level instrumental activities of daily living (IADL). Studies have found a positive relationship between scores on psychometric tests of fluid ability and the ability to solve everyday IADL-type problems such as following instructions for use of a household appliance. Finally, assessment of everyday competence is often needed for the purpose of legal judgments. Judgments regarding the need for legal guardianship or legal conservatorship are usually based on whether older adults are able to care for themselves or manage their own financial affairs, respectively. An area of growing concern is that of capacity assessment – developing reliable and valid methods of determining older adults’ competencies in terms of making decisions in various domains (e.g., financial).

SUGGESTED WEBSITES

Internet search

A search of the internet using the terms aging and intelligence will yield a long list of websites regarding work related to age and intellectual functioning.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

http://www.iupui.edu/~flip/wechsler.html

This website provides an overview of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale tests. It describes the background surrounding its development.

Cognitive Aging Laboratory at the University of Virginia (Virginia Cognitive Aging Project (VCAP)

http://faculty.virginia.edu/cogage/

This website describes the ongoing research program of Dr. Timothy Salthouse, Lab Director, at the University of Virginia. The VCAP is currently one of the largest active longitudinal studies of aging involving comprehensive cognitive assessments in adults ranging from 18 to 98 years of age.

Capacity Assessment

http://www.apa.org/pi/aging/programs/assessment/capacity-psychologist-handbook.pdf

This handbook was devised by a working group sponsored by the American Bar Association and the American Psychological Association. It is a handbook for psychologists who must determine whether or not older adults have diminished capacity for making decisions.

Legal Guardianship and Conservatorship

Information can be found by searching the internet entering “legal guardianship” or “legal conservatorship.” You will see lists of websites from various law firms as well as publications on these topics. Some websites will include questions asked and answered about situations that may require either guardianship or conservatorship.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Select the best answer from the options provided.

1. Which of the following is NOT one of Sternberg’s three components of intelligence?

a. Contextual

b. Experiential

c. Information processing

d. “g” factor

2. According to Sternberg, the definition of intelligence is the same regardless of culture and age.

a. True

b. False

3. Fluid intelligence is related to ________, whereas crystallized intelligence is related to _______.

a. the integrity of the central nervous system; education and experience

b. education and experience; innate ability and underlying brain processes

c. social and cultural influences; “raw” intelligence

d. the ability to use what one already knows; the ability to process novel information

4. According to Baltes and his colleagues, the mechanics of intelligence ________, whereas the pragmatics of intelligence _______.

a. are related to culture; are dependent upon brain functioning

b. are genetically and biologically controlled; are related to knowledge gained through experience

c. are similar to crystallized intelligence; are similar to fluid intelligence

d. depend on factual and procedural knowledge; depend on physiology

5. The __________ has been likened to the hardware of the mind, whereas _____ is likened to the software of the mind.

a. “g” factor; “s” factors

b. crystallized intelligence; fluid intelligence

c. mechanics of intelligence; pragmatics of intelligence

d. experiential intelligence; contextual intelligence

6. In Baltes’ dual-process model of intellectual functioning, there are two kinds of intellectual processes: Mechanics and Pragmatics. Which is the most accurate statement about these two processes?

a. Both Mechanics and Pragmatics decline with age

b. Both Mechanics and Pragmatics improve with age

c. Pragmatics decline but Mechanics improve with age

d. Pragmatics improve but Mechanics decline with age

7. Generally speaking, fluid intelligence is thought to _______; crystallized intelligence is thought to __________.

a. increase or be maintained with age; decline with age

b. increase or be maintained with age; increase or be maintained with age

c. decline with age; decline with age

d. decline with age; increase or be maintained with age

8. The psychometric approach to intelligence_______________.

a. emphasizes quantitative measurement

b. uses tests that have been standardized on to a large representative sample of individuals

c. was originally devised in the context of academic performance

d. All of the above

9. Psychometric intelligence tests were not used for adults until 1980.

a. True

b. False

10. Which of the following is NOT a factor on Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities (PMA) test?

a. Verbal meaning

b. Word fluency

c. Spatial orientation

d. Calculus

11. The IQ obtained from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) ________.

a. is an accurate index of biological intelligence

b. is a highly accurate predictor of all types of everyday intelligence

c. reflects a person’s standing on an array of abilities relative to others in the same age group

d. is the same as the scaled scores on the subtests

12. A man of 20 and a man of 70 obtain the same number of points on the WAIS performance subtests (digit symbol, block design, and so on). In this case, the Performance IQ of the 70-year-old will be ________ the Performance IQ of the 20-year-old.

a. higher than

b. the same as

c. lower than

13. The Flynn effect refers to a phenomenon whereby _________.

a. a recent standardization sample attains higher scores than an earlier one

b. a recent standardization sample gets lower scores than an earlier one

c. recent and earlier standardization samples get the same scores

14. According to Woodruff-Pak, the Phase I perspective of those who studied aging and intelligence focused on ___________.

a. studying which abilities decline and which ones are maintained with age

b. the method used to study aging and intellectual abilities

c. determining when the peak of intellectual functioning was reached and when it began to decline

d. whether intellectual abilities would improve with training and practice

15. In general, cross-sectional studies of age and WAIS scores find _____ age-related decline compared to longitudinal studies of age and WAIS scores.

a. a greater amount of

b. an equal amount of

c. a smaller amount of

16. In 2010, a group of 20-year-old individuals take a test of spatial ability. We already have the scores earned by a group of 20-year-old individuals who took the same spatial abilities test 30 years earlier in the year 1980. If the 20-year-olds who took the test in 2010- earn higher scores than the 20-year-olds who took the test in 1980, we can say that there is ______________.

a. a swan-song phenomenon for spatial ability

b. a positive cohort trend for spatial ability

c. no valid way to measure spatial ability

d. no cross-sectional age finding

17. When we say there is a negative cohort trend, we mean that individuals in the present-day young adult cohort have less ability than did individuals in the older cohort had when they were young.

a. True

b. False

18. The classic aging pattern refers to the fact that ___________.

a. verbal tests of intellectual ability tend to hold up better with age than performance tests do

b. performance tests of intellectual ability tend to hold up better with age than verbal tests do

c. both verbal and performance tests of intellectual ability show equal large declines with age

d. neither verbal nor performance tests of intellectual ability show any decline with age

19. Which of the following subtests from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) shows the greatest age-related decline in number of points earned?

a. Information

b. Comprehension

c. Digit symbol

d. Vocabulary

20. Which of the following subtests from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) shows the least age-related decline as far as number of points earned?

a. Information

b. Digit symbol

c. Block design

d. Picture arrangement

21. Which of the following WAIS subtests is age-insensitive?

a. Vocabulary

b. Block design

c. Digit symbol

d. Picture completion

22. Which of the following WAIS subtests is age-sensitive?

a. Comprehension

b. Vocabulary

c. Information

d. Block design

23. According to the dedifferentiation hypothesis, in late older adulthood crystallized abilities are not preserved better than fluid abilities, as they were earlier.

a. True

b. False

24. Researchers who believe in testing the limits of intellectual ability are likely to think that ______________.

a. a person’s score the first time he/she takes a psychometric test is a good measure of his or her intellectual functioning

b. a person would have to be tested on several occasions to get a true picture of intellectual functioning

c. practice and training do not benefit intellectual test scores

d. people get the same scores no matter how many times they take a test

25. Which of the following is most accurate about Denney’s concept of optimally exercised and unexercised abilities?

a. At all ages, optimally exercised abilities are superior to unexercised abilities.

b. Both kinds of abilities reach a peak in late adolescence or young adulthood.

c. Optimally exercised abilities retain their superiority over unexercised abilities even in older adulthood.

d. All of the above

26. White matter hyperintensities (WMH) are never seen in the brains of healthy older adults.

a. True

b. False

27. In general, there is _______ variation among older adults than there is among young adults on tests of intellectual ability.

a. greater

b. the same amount of

c. less

28. Which factor(s) is (are) related to maintenance of intellectual functioning in older adulthood?

a. A flexible personality

b. Satisfaction with one’s accomplishments in mid-life and early older adulthood

c. Membership in an intact family

d. All of the above

29. A researcher measures the amount of time older adults spend each week engaging in mentally challenging activities and also obtains the scores they earn on a psychometric test of intelligence. The researcher finds that the more time older adults spend engaging in mentally challenging activities, the higher their scores on the psychometric test. On the basis of this finding, which of the following conclusions would the researcher be most justified in drawing?

a. Engaging in mentally challenging activities causes psychometric test scores to increase.

b. Spending too little time engaging in mentally challenging activities causes psychometric test scores to decline.

c. Amount of time spent engaging in mentally challenging activities and scores on a psychometric intelligence test are positively related (positively correlated).

d. Amount of time spent engaging in mentally challenging activities and scores on a psychometric intelligence test are negatively related (negatively correlated).

30. Participating in complex leisure activities _____________.

a. leads to fatigue

b. is associated with a higher level of intellectual functioning

c. has no relationship with level of intellectual functioning

d. is guaranteed to prevent cognitive decline in older adulthood

31. Some psychologists have questioned whether the abilities measured by psychometric tests have much relevance, or meaning, as far as measuring the kinds of abilities that are needed to function intelligently in everyday life. These individuals think that psychometric tests may lack _________.

a. reliability

b. ecological validity

c. statistical significance

d. histological importance

32. Berg and Sternberg asked people to describe an exceptionally intelligent individual of 30, 50, or 70 years of age. Which factor did people think would describe the exceptionally intelligent 30-year-old but not the exceptionally intelligent 50-year-old or 70-year-old?

a. Verbal competence

b. Everyday competence

c. Ability to deal with novelty

d. Word fluency

33. Salthouse demonstrated that older faculty members at a university get better scores than younger faculty members do on all types of psychometric ability tests.

a. True

b. False

34. With encapsulation, __________________.

a. knowledge within a specific domain of expertise becomes easier to use

b. knowledge outside specific domains of expertise is used more efficiently

c. old knowledge is constantly being replaced by new information

d. people are unable to learn anything new

35. Willis and her colleagues devised an Everyday Problems Test (EPT) that consisted of written tasks in seven Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) categories. Then they related older adults’ scores on the EPT test and their scores on psychometric tests of intelligence. They found that older adults’ EPT scores were ____________.

a. most strongly related to their scores on psychometric tests of crystallized ability

b. most strongly related to their scores on scores on psychometric tests of fluid ability

c. equally strongly related to their scores on psychometric tests of crystallized and fluid ability

d. unrelated to their scores on psychometric tests of crystallized or fluid ability

36. Naming another person to make decisions concerning living arrangements, health care, and provision of all other basic needs is called _________.

a. legal guardianship

b. legal bonding

c. legal conservatorship

d. legal partnership

37. Naming another person to manage a person’s financial transactions is called _________.

a. legal guardianship

b. legal bonding

c. legal conservatorship

d. legal partnership

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Define fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc) and describe how they differ.

2. Describe what Baltes and his colleagues mean by the mechanics of intelligence and the pragmatics of intelligence. What is the developmental course, or trajectory, of each?

3. Explain how actual scores in a test such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) are related to the IQ a test taker receives on this test.

4. Why is there usually less age-related decline reported for psychometric intelligence test scores in longitudinal studies than there is in psychometric intelligence test scores in cross-sectional studies?

5. What is meant by the classic aging pattern that is found on psychometric tests such as the WAIS?

6. How are the concept of testing the limits and the life-span developmental proposition of plasticity related?

7. Describe what is expected to happen over time to optimally exercised and unexercised abilities.

8. Name three factors associated with reduced risk of age-related decline in intellectual abilities.

9. What do the disuse hypothesis and the engagement hypothesis have to say about the course of cognitive decline over the adult life span?

10. Some researchers contend that psychometric intelligence tests lack ecological validity for older adults. What do they mean by this?

11. Berg and Sternberg interviewed people to determine their definitions of “intelligent” behavior. Three factors stood out as important: (1) interest in and ability to deal with novelty, (2) everyday competence, and (3) verbal competence. Which factor(s) did people consider important for the “exceptionally intelligent” 30-year-old and which factor(s) did people consider important for the “exceptionally intelligent” 70-year-old?

12. Researchers have studied the relationship between older adults’ psychometric test scores and their ability to perform instrumental activities of daily living (IADL). In general, what have they found?

13. What is meant by capacity assessment and when might it be needed?