Test Bank Docx Constructing Perception Chapter 25

Chapter 25: Constructing Perception

Test Bank

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 01

1. A chimpanzee is trained to reach a bunch of bananas suspended from the ceiling by using a ladder. On subsequent trials, the ladder is replaced with a chair and a stack of crates, placed in the room, but not directly underneath the bananas and either of which, the chimpanzee must now use to solve the problem of getting the bananas. This is an example of

Feedback: Subhead: What Is the Function of Cortical Processing?

Learning Objective: Identify the functions served by intracortical processing of sensory signals.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

a. cognitive processing.

b. generalization.

c. deduction.

d. induction.

e. instinct.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 02

2. The conversion of an image on the retina and then on the visual cortex into something meaningful on the posterior parietal cortex is an example of

Feedback: Subhead: What Is the Function of Cortical Processing?

Learning Objective: Identify the functions served by intracortical processing of sensory signals.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

a. generalization.

b. cognition.

c. intracortical processing.

d. Abstraction.

e. Learning and memory.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 03

3. In the vibrational comparison task, monkeys were to discriminate between two different stimuli frequencies applied to a fingertip. The greater the _______ between the baseline and a test stimulus, the better the performance.

Feedback: Subhead: Tactile Working Memory and Its Representation in Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Learning Objective: Explain what the vibrational comparison task is.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

a. difference

b. magnitude

c. intensity

d. difference in type of stimulus

e. difference in origin of stimulus

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 04

4. Besides varying the comparison frequency with respect to the baseline frequency, what other parameter is a valid measure of the subject being able to discriminate between presentation of the baseline and comparison frequencies?

Feedback: Subhead: Tactile Working Memory and Its Representation in Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Learning Objective: Explain what the vibrational comparison task is.

Bloom’s Level: 6. Creating

a. Adding a visual stimulus between presentation of the baseline and that of the comparison frequencies

b. Adding an auditory stimulus between presentation of the baseline and that of the comparison frequencies

c. Varying the interval between presentation of the baseline and that of the comparison frequencies

d. Varying the intensities of the comparison frequencies

e. Varying the duration of the comparison frequencies

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 05

5. Neuronal firing rate of S1 neurons at the baseline stimulus of 20 Hz, meant that the monkey judged the comparison frequency as being different from the former approximately _______ of the time.

Feedback: Subhead: Tactile Working Memory and Its Representation in Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Learning Objective: Report two observations that led to the conclusion that vibrational frequency in S1 neurons is extracted from their firing rate, not their periodicity.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing.

a. 10 %

b. 20 %

c. 40 %

d. 80 %

e. 100 %

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 06

6. Perception or judgment (psychometric) of differences between the baseline and comparison frequencies vs. the SI neuronal response (neurometric) were greatest at approximately

Feedback: Subhead: Tactile Working Memory and Its Representation in Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Learning Objective: Report two observations that led to the conclusion that vibrational frequency in S1 neurons is extracted from their firing rate, not their periodicity.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing

a. 10 Hz

b. 15 Hz

c. 25 Hz

d. 30 Hz

e. 15 and 30 Hz

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 07

7. Clinically, the vibrational comparison experiments have application for the treatment of symptoms of

Feedback: Subhead: Tactile Working Memory and Its Representation in Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Learning Objective: Propose some therapeutic applications that could be developed by substituting direct cortical stimulation for mechanical skin stimulation.

Bloom’s Level: 6. Creating

a. stroke.

b. Alzheimer’s disease.

c. spinal cord injury.

d. rash associated with chickenpox.

e. third-degree burns.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 08

8. Vibrational comparison experiments of the type described in the textbook can also be used as a diagnostic tool for

Feedback: Subhead: Tactile Working Memory and Its Representation in Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Learning Objective: Propose some therapeutic applications that could be developed by substituting direct cortical stimulation for mechanical skin stimulation.

Bloom’s Level: 6. Creating

a. severe burns.

b. diabetes.

c. Parkinson’s disease.

d. Alzheimer’s disease.

e. severe itching.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 09

9. The primary motor cortex is the _______ cortical area to receive input and whose neurons send axons to the ventral horn of the spinal cord.

Feedback: Subhead: Transformation from Sensation to Action

Learning Objective: Outline the flow of tactile information in the brain from S1 to primary motor cortex (M1).

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

a. first

b. second

c. third

d. fourth

e. final

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 10

10. The neuronal indication that the monkey is deciding how much two different stimuli (frequencies) differ is indicated by

Feedback: Subhead: Transformation from Sensation to Action

Learning Objective: Outline the flow of tactile information in the brain from S1 to primary motor cortex (M1).

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

a. how close the neurons are anatomically.

b. how close the various brain nuclei are anatomically.

c. how morphologically similar they are.

d. how small the error is on the regression line on which the difference lies.

e. the judgment the neuron is making.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 11

11. During the interval between the first and the second stimulus, which neurons respond the least?

Feedback: Subhead: Transformation from Sensation to Action

Learning Objective: Identify two ways in which the activity of neurons in S2 and the frontal cortices differs from that in S1.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

a. S1 cortex

b. S2 cortex

c. Prefrontal cortex

d. Premotor cortex

e. Primary motor cortex

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 12

12. As the stimuli move from S1 into S2, and then to the prefrontal cortex and then the premotor cortex, which of the following increases?

Feedback: Subhead: Transformation from Sensation to Action

Learning Objective: Identify two ways in which the activity of neurons in S2 and the frontal cortices differs from that in S1.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

a. Latency

b. Discharge rate

c. Frequency

d. Mixture of positive vs. negative responding

e. Mixture of excitation vs. inhibition

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 13

13. In the model, r = b + a₁f₁ + a₂f₂, [where r = firing rate, b = background firing rate, a = coefficient of a neuron’s discharge rate, f₁ = baseline frequency and f₂ = comparison stimulus frequency], in which brain area does a vary the most?

Feedback: Subhead: Transformation from Sensation to Action

Learning Objective: Identify two ways in which the activity of neurons in S2 and the frontal cortices differs from that in S1.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

a. S1 cortex

b. S2 cortex

c. Medial prefrontal cortex

d. Medial premotor cortex

e. Primary motor cortex

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 14

14. Which of the five cortical regions in the vibrational comparison task is likely to make the most errors?

Feedback: Subhead: Transformation from Sensation to Action

Learning Objective: Explain what the choice probability index is.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

a. S1 cortex

b. S2 cortex

c. Medial prefrontal cortex

d. Medial premotor cortex

e. Primary motor cortex

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 15

15. A higher error rate in making a decision about whether a second stimulus (f₂) is different from the first baseline stimulus (f₁) is most likely to occur if

Feedback: Subhead: Transformation from Sensation to Action

Learning Objective: Explain what the choice probability index is.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

a. f₁ is somehow corrupted.

b. f₁ is not salient (meaningful) enough.

c. f₂ is somehow corrupted.

d. (f₁ - f₂) is large; i.e., there is a long delay between the two stimuli.

e. (f₁ - f₂) is small; i.e., there is a short delay between the two stimuli.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 16

16. Which of the following is characteristic of the dorsal stream?

Feedback: Subhead: Visual Object Perception in Primates

Learning Objective: Compare the two pathways by which visual information is processed beyond V1.

Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering

a. Object identification

b. Scenery identification

c. Object saliency

d. Scenery saliency

e. Object movement

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 17

17. Which cortex belongs to both the ventral and dorsal pathways?

Feedback: Subhead: Visual Object Perception in Primates

Learning Objective: Compare the two pathways be which visual information is processed beyond V1.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

a. V2 cortex

b. V4 cortex

c. Posterior inferotemporal cortex

d. Anterior inferotemporal cortex

e. Posterior parietal cortex

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 18

18. In the macaque brain, which part of the ventral stream seems to be the largest?

Feedback: Subhead: Visual Object Perception in Primates

Learning Objective: Outline how information flows in the ventral visual pathway, beginning at V1.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing

a. V1 cortex

b. V2 cortex

c. Posterior part of the inferotemporal cortex

d. Anterior part of the inferotemporal cortex

e. They are all about the same size.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 19

19. If the ventral pathway were ablated between V2 and not allowed to proceed further down the ventral stream, what would happen to object saliency?

Feedback: Subhead: Visual Object Perception in Primates

Learning Objective: Outline how information flows in the ventral visual pathway, beginning at V1.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing

a. We would still be able to recognize an object only if we have prior experience with it.

b. We would be able to recognize the form (shape) of an object, but none of its substance (usefulness).

c. We would be able to recognize the form of an object, but not its color.

d. We would not be able to recognize an object regardless.

e. We could see only a part of the object.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 20

20. People with visual agnosia have problems with _______ once-familiar objects.

Feedback: Subhead: Visual Object Perception in Primates

Learning Objective: Give examples of deficits observed in people who have visual agnosia.

Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering

a. locating

b. using

c. identifying

d. recognizing form and color of

e. manipulating

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 21

21. The further away from V1 or the further along the ventral visual pathway the lesion is, the _______ is the deficit.

Feedback: Subhead: Visual Object Perception in Primates

Learning Objective: Give examples of deficits observed in people who have visual agnosia.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

a. less severe

b. more severe

c. more complicated

d. more debilitating

e. more letha22

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 22

22. Electrical microstimulation of face-selective neurons in the brains of monkeys while they were looking at a noisy visual images (stimulus) increased the probability that the monkey

Feedback: Subhead: Images That Activate Neurons in the Ventral Stream

Learning Objective: Discuss some of the experimental evidence for a causal relationship between the activity of face-selective neurons and face perception.

Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering

a. reacted violently.

b. reacted as if being threatened.

c. passively withdrew.

d. reacted as if it recognized an image in the stimulus as being a face.

e. reacted as if it recognized an image in the stimulus as being a face, but only if the face belonged to someone that the monkey knew.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 23

23. Functional MRI experiments indicated that saliency of a collection of visual stimuli was positively correlated with _______ in the occipito-termporal stream.

Feedback: Subhead: Images That Activate Neurons in the Ventral Stream

Learning Objective: Discuss some of the experimental evidence for a causal relationship between the activity of face-selective neurons and face perception.

Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering

a. metabolic activity

b. action potentials

c. white matter

d. grey matter

e. calcium currents

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 24

24. The parahippocampal place area (PPA) is a cortical extension of the _______, a limbic structure involved in memory and spatial navigation.

Feedback: Subhead: Images That Activate Neurons in the Ventral Stream

Learning Objective: Distinguish between the parahippocampal place area (PPA) and the fusiform face area (FFA).

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

a. V1 cortex

b. V2 cortex

c. hippocampus

d. temporal cortex

e. auditory cortex

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 25

25. What is one probable function of the parahippocampal place area (PPA) in the recognition of faces?

Feedback: Subhead: Images That Activate Neurons in the Ventral Stream

Learning Objective: Distinguish between the parahippocampal place area (PPA) and the fusiform face area (FFA).

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

a. To act as a back-up for the fusiform face area

b. To provide neuronal activity background to the fusiform face area

c. To provide context (e.g., building, landscape) in which to aid the fusiform face area in recognizing faces

d. To provide an emotional context to the fusiform face area, thereby aiding in recognition of faces

e. The FFA projects to the PPA for further cognitive processing, in case the original face being recognized has been altered, say, by time or other physical means

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 26

26. How do inferotemporal cortical neurons respond to repeated exposure to the same visual stimulus, which is only slightly altered with each presentation?

Feedback: Subhead: Images That Activate Neurons in the Ventral Stream

Learning Objective: Explain what invariance is.

Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering

a. The neurons become increasingly more active across trials.

b. The neurons become increasingly more active across trials but then plateau (sustained level of responding).

c. The neurons become increasingly less active across trials.

d. The neurons become increasingly less active across trials until some low steady-state level is reached.

e. The neurons immediately stop responding.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 27

27. Regardless of the context, angle, size, color, lighting, or clarity of an image of an object, we are still able to recognize that object. This is because the inferotemporal cortex

Feedback: Subhead: Images That Activate Neurons in the Ventral Stream

Learning Objective: Explain what invariance is.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

a. keeps a record of all possible permutations of the aforementioned properties of an object.

b. is able to dynamically change the activity of its many neuronal subsets, depending on the version of the object that is presented.

c. is highly plastic and is able to change its cortical volume, depending of the version of the object that is presented.

d. is able to increase its firing rate of a subset of ITC neurons indefinitely while decreasing the firing rate of other subsets every time a new version of the same object is presented.

e. is able to lower its firing rate or adapt, as long as none of the many versions of the same object does not stray too far from the percept of what the object is supposed to be.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 28

28. Magnocellular cells originate in the

Feedback: Subhead: Dorsal Intracortical Visual Pathways and Motion Detection

Learning Objective: Describe the role of the medial temporal cortex (area MT) in analyzing motion.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

a. retina.

b. lateral geniculate nucleus.

c. V1 cortex.

d. V2 cortex.

e. medial temporal lobe.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 29

29. Which of the following pathways is critical for the ability to detect motion?

Feedback: Subhead: Dorsal Intracortical Visual Pathways and Motion Detection

Learning Objective: Describe the role of the medial temporal cortex (area MT) in analyzing motion.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

a. Retina to V1 to V2 to lateral geniculate to medial temporal lobe

b. Retina to V1 to V2 to posterior parietal cortex to medial temporal lobe

c. Retina to lateral geniculate to V1 to V2 to posterior parietal cortex to medial temporal lobe

d. Retinal to lateral geniculate to V1 to V2 to medial temporal cortex to posterior parietal cortex

e. Retina to V1 to V2 to lateral geniculate to posterior parietal cortex to medial temporal cortex

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 30

30. Monkeys are made to track a moving red dot as a stimulus when they were electrically microstimulated during presentation of the sample stimulus during a pre-determined period. Recordings of the _______ of medial temporal neurons were made in any one of four orthogonal directions (Cartesian coordinates).

Feedback: Subhead: Dorsal Intracortical Visual Pathways and Motion Detection

Learning Objective: Explain how the area MT computes motion.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing

a. calcium currents

b. dendritic arborizations

c. firing rate

d. neurotransmitter release rate

e. excitatory postsynaptic potentials

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 31

31. If you are watching a mouse navigate a maze, the mouse is a moving object whose movements are unpredictable. Which part of your visual system will be involved in analyzing the mouse’s movements?

Feedback: Subhead: Dorsal Intracortical Visual Pathways and Motion Detection

Learning Objective: Explain how the area MT computes motion.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

a. Lateral geniculate nucleus

b. Posterior medial temporal lobe

c. V1 cortex

d. V2 cortex

e. Retina

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 32

32. Medial temporal neurons compute direction of motion using vectors, which are

Feedback: Subhead: Dorsal Intracortical Visual Pathways and Motion Detection

Learning Objective: Explain how the area MT computes motion.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing

a. added geometrically.

b. added algebraically.

c. added arithmetically (which also involves subtraction).

d. added by any means, depending on the distance travelled by the moving object.

e. not really known—this knowledge requires complex cellular studies on M cells in the medial temporal cortex.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 33

33. The final structure in which an image is consolidated and recognized as being familiar or not occurs in the

Feedback: Subhead: Transformation from Elements to Percepts

Learning Objective: Describe two mechanisms that neurons use to encode images.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

a. V1 cortex.

b. V2 cortex.

c. medial prefrontal cortex.

d. medial premotor cortex.

e. anterior temporal lobe.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 34

34. An image that is flashed in front of a subject for as briefly as 50 ms is still enough time for the subject to extract from it meaningful information, the amount and quality of which, depend on

Feedback: Subhead: Transformation from Elements to Percepts

Learning Objective: Describe two mechanisms that neurons use to encode images.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

a. the familiarity of the image.

b. the size of the image.

c. the complexity of the image.

d. whether the image is that of a natural (e.g., a chicken in a field) or unnatural (e.g., a chicken in a cage) theme.

e. the relevancy of the image (e.g., a scene of a soccer match shown to someone who has no interest in sports).

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 35

35. Drawing attention to a familiar face in a complex scene of people milling about in a natural setting, such as a woody glen, will activate the

Feedback: Subhead: Transformation from Elements to Percepts.

Learning Objective: Identify three functions served by top-down inputs.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

a. V1.

b. V2.

c. inferotemporal cortex.

d. fusiform face area.

e. parahippocampal place area.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 36

36. Transcranial magnetic stimulation of V1 interferes with visual recall. This means that

Feedback: Subhead: Transformation from Elements to Percepts

Learning Objective: Identify three functions served by top-down inputs.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

a. flow of information is no longer flowing from V1 to V2.

b. flow of information from the frontal cortex and hippocampus has been disrupted.

c. all posterior-to-anterior information flow has been disrupted.

d. visual recall depends on the presentation of the stimulus as a reminder.

e. visual recall depends on the presentation of the stimulus as a predictor of other images.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 37

37. We are able to recognize objects in our world because we have

Feedback: Subhead: Combining Sensory Modalities

Learning Objective: Explain how multisensory representations of the world are generated.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

a. seen pictures of such objects.

b. read about such objects.

c. experience with such objects.

d. been told about such objects.

e. talked about such objects.

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 38

38. The greater the number of sensory modalities we use to “know” an object, the _______ and _______ is our mental representation about it.

Feedback: Subhead: Combining Sensory Modalities

Learning Objective: Explain how multisensory representations of the world are generated.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

a. more accurate; complete

b. more accurate; incomplete

c. more accurate; efficient

d. less accurate; complete

e. less accurate; incomplete

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 39

39. If an associated cortex that is served by both visual and tactile sensory input is damaged, what will be the probable result?

Feedback: Subhead: Combining Sensory Modalities

Learning Objective: Identify two ways in which the function of association cortex can be inferred.

Bloom’s Level: 6. Creating

a. Retrograde damage into the somatosensory cortex will occur.

b. Retrograde damage into V1 cortex will occur.

c. Retrograde damage into both the somatosensory and V1 cortices will occur.

d. The animal will not be able to make sense (create a mental representation) of the stimuli if the damage occurred before exposure to the stimuli.

e. The animal will still be able to draw on memories of earlier representations of the stimuli before the damage occurred, and, therefore, the appropriate behavioral response will still occur40

Type: multiple choice question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 40

40. One way to determine the function of the association cortex is to record cellular responses when the animal is presented with a certain stimulus. If the stimulus was a video of a famous celebrity singing, the temporal-occipital association cortex will receive both visual and auditory input. One should, therefore, record from

Feedback: Subhead: Combining Sensory Modalities

Learning Objective: Identify two ways in which the function of association cortex can be inferred.

Bloom’s Level: 6. Creating

a. the V1 cortex.

b. the V2 cortex.

c. both V1 and the auditory cortices.

d. the temporal-occipital association cortex.

e. the V1 cortex, auditory cortex and the temporal-occipital association cortex.

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 41

41. Explain how intracortical processing applies in the auditory system.

Feedback: Beyond just perceiving sound (the job of the auditory cortex), we must also be able to identify and locate sound. Identification is made possible because of projections leading from the auditory cortex to the orbital-frontal and ventral premotor cortices. Localization of sound occurs because of fasciculi from the auditory cortex to the dorsolateral prefrontal and premotor cortices, both directly and via the posterior parietal cortex.

Subhead: What Is the Function of Cortical Processing?

Learning Objective: Identify the functions served by intracortical processing of sensory signals.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 42

42. Explain in simple and “big picture” terms what the vibrational comparison task is.

Feedback: The hypothesis is that there is a correlation (association) between subjective judgment (psychometric) and neuronal (neurometric) response. Using behavior as the measurement variable, stimulation on the forefinger, which corresponds to a single population of neurons (S1) in the somatosensory cortex, a subject will respond with the contralateral hand to indicate how different two successive trains of stimuli are from each other (baseline vs. comparison frequencies).

Subhead: Tactile Working Memory Task and Its Representation in Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Learning Objective: Explain what the vibration comparison task is.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 43

43. How could one apply a vibrational comparison-type experiment to diagnose a medical problem?

Feedback: Any condition in which there is lack of sensation on the skin, which could indicate spinal cord injury, preventing signals from reaching the somatosensory cortex, could, in principle, be diagnosed this way. For example, a largely a unilateral lesion of the spinal cord, where the contralateral side is still intact, would still enable the patient to feel on that side. Moreover, lack of motor skill needed to push the lever up or down would also be another sign of how complete the lesion is.

Subhead: Tactile Working Memory Task and Its Representation in Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Learning Objective: Propose some therapeutic applications that could be developed by substituting direct cortical stimulation for mechanical skin stimulation.

Bloom’s Level: 6. Creating

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 44

44. What is a common clinical evaluation most people undergo that is analogous to the intracortical processing for tactile stimuli described in the text?

Feedback: When an optometrist determines a patient’s vision, the latter must compare two successive images to decide which image is sharper. In this scenario, the patient must subjectively evaluate the (f₁ – f₂), which, in this case, is the difference between the two images. The smaller the difference, the more the two images look alike and is evaluated in the ventral stream to the temporal lobe which is responsible for analyzing form and color of an object, or, in the case of an optometric exam, usually only form.

Subhead: Transformation from Sensation to Action

Learning Objective: Outline the flow of tactile information in the brain from S1 to primary motor cortex (M1).

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing.

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 45

45. Propose a possible explanation for why the primary motor cortex has little-to-no stimulus coding.

Feedback: It is possible that from S1-to-S2-to-PFC-to-MPC, differences between two successive stimuli are being evaluated during the delay (comparison period) and then decided. By the time the signal reaches the primary motor cortex, all relevant sensory input has been evaluated and the decision has been made; then, it is up to MI to initiate the movement itself (in conjunction, of course, with other non-cortical motor areas, such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum).

Subhead: Transformation from Sensation to Action

Learning Objective: Identify two ways in which the activity of neurons in S2 and the frontal cortices differs from that in S1.

Bloom’s Level: 6. Creating

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 46

46. Propose an equation that describes the choice probability index (CPI).

Feedback: The greater the saliency (meaningfulness) of f₁, and the shorter the delay between f₁ and f₂, we can write the equation as:

CPI = [f₁ (f₁ – f₂)]/T, where T is the total errors made for a particular decision involving a given brain area, such as, say, S2. This equation, therefore, expresses the error rate as a proportion, which can vary from 0 to 1; or as a percentage (if multiplied by 100). A higher CPI indicates a higher error rate.

Subhead: Transformation from Sensation to Action

Learning Objective: Explain what the choice probability is.

Bloom’s Level: 6. Creating

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 47

47. Although the dorsal pathway allows us to detect motion of an object, must the latter be moving for us to get a complete picture about an object’s saliency?

Feedback: No, because the ventral stream is enough for recognition of an object; if the object is moving, only greater saliency is added. For example, most of us can recognize all breeds of dogs as belonging to the group, called “dogs,” whether it is a German shepherd or a dachshund; in the vast majority of cases, we do not need prior experience with an object to be able to recognize it; we can generalize from one breed to another. Neither does the dog have to be moving, thereby activating the dorsal visual pathway, for us to recognize the animal as a dog. But, in case we cannot, then a moving dog helps us recognize it as an animal and even as a dog.

Subhead: Visual Object Perception in Primates

Learning Objective: Compare the two pathways by which visual information is processed beyond V1.

Bloom’s Level: 5. Evaluating

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 48

48. Explain how businesses and government take advantage of pattern recognition to advertise themselves and/or to convey a message that can be immediately perceived.

Feedback: Businesses and government use logos, which bypass cognitive processing steps and give immediate saliency to the message being conveyed. Thus, a STOP sign is always a red-and-white octagon that everyone recognizes and has processed at an earlier date and, therefore, does not need the time it takes to neutrally process and extract the meaning of this sign. Clearly, this is highly critical in traffic. Likewise for the McDonalds logo; immediate name brand recognition advertises to potential customers who do not have to cognitively process what McDonalds is. In these cases, the ventral stream is either bypassed or is rushed through to inform the motor cortex, to brake the car in the case of a STOP sign or to the prefrontal-to-premotor cortices to plan the next meal.

Subhead: Visual Object Perception in Primates

Learning Objective: Outline how information flows in the ventral visual pathway, beginning at V1.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 49

49. In ambiguous visual images, such as “Rubin’s Vase,” shown in the text, most people can recognize the faces in the image. Propose an explanation for why some people do not recognize the faces first, but rather, see the vase first, even after some prodding.

Feedback: It is possible that in these people, the subset of face-selective neurons is smaller and/or less active.

Subhead: Images That Activate Neurons in the Ventral Stream

Learning Objective: Discuss some of the experimental evidence for a causal relationship between the activity of face-selective neurons and face perception.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 50

50. Although in Biology, teleological questions are difficult to answer, propose one possible reason for why the brain has invested so much in visual recognition of faces.

Feedback: Humans are genetically programmed to place a high degree of investment in the ability to recognize faces. Not only because humans are social animals, but more importantly, the ability of an infant to recognize a human face, and more specifically, his caregiver’s face, is critical for survival. Because humans’ (and non-human primates’) senses of smell and hearing are rather dull, compared to those of many other species, the ability to recognize each other’s face is critical, not only for survival, but also for community. Thus, there are specific neuronal subsets, face-selective neurons, which are devoted to allowing the animal to differentiate faces from non-faces.

Subhead: Images That Activate Neurons in the Ventral Stream

Learning Objective: Distinguish between the parahippocampal place area (PPA) and the fusiform face area (FFA).

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 51

51. Evidence described in the text indicates that face-selective neurons exist. Is it possible that each person has a subset of neurons that recognize specific faces, such as those of famous people, friends and family members? And, do such specific subsets of neurons recognize more than one face? That is, say, if face-specific neurons A, B, and C recognize your father’s face, do these same neurons also recognize your mother’s face? And, if one of these subsets of neurons were selectively destroyed, will you still be able to recognize your father’s face?

Feedback: There is fMRI evidence that the fusiform face area (FFA) plays a prominent role not only in distinguishing faces from other objects, but is also involved in recognizing specific faces. Thus, there are probably specific neurons in the FFA that recognize specific faces. Ethical issues aside, these last three questions would have to be empirically addressed to know for sure.

Subhead: Images That Activate Neurons in the Ventral Stream

Learning Objective: Distinguish between the parahippocampal place area (PPA) and the fusiform face area (FFA).

Bloom’s Level: 6. Creating

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 52

52. Every day, you see and are familiar with your sister, who is 15 years old. Then, one day, she leaves, and you do not see her again for 15 years. Now, at age 30; you barely recognize her. Explain the activities your inferotemporal cortex (ITC) underwent during the first 15 years and then again when you see your sister at age 30.

Feedback: During your first constant exposure to your sister, your ITC grew accustomed to your sister’s face and thus, adapted to it by reaching a low steady-state firing rate, just a little above background. Then, her absence of 15 years provides a new and unique challenge for your ITC. Not only must your ITC re-adjust to the novel stimulus of your sister’s face (novel, because it has not been exposed to your sister’s face for 15 years), but also, the confounding variable that your sister’s face probably changed, as she grew into adulthood. Your ITC will now actively fire at a high level, but which will eventually dissipate as you once again adapt or get used to your sister’s face. How fast your ITC adapts depends on how long and often you see her.

Subhead: Images That Activate Neurons in the Ventral Stream

Learning Objective: Explain what invariance is.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 53

53. How would a patient with a lesion in the medial temporal cortex perceive the movement of a person cross from one side of the room to the other?

Feedback: The patient would not see the person move across the room. Rather, the patient would see the person on one side of the room at one time and then at the next time, see the person on the other side of the room; it is rather like a series of snapshots with no continuity.

Subhead: Dorsal Intracortical Visual Pathways and Motion Detection

Learning Objective: Describe the role of the medial temporal cortex (area MT) in analyzing motion.

Bloom’s Level: 6. Creating

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 54

54. When one image is able to predict the appearance of a second image, the two stimuli are said to be paired. This can happen in either an artificial setting, such as in a laboratory, or in a natural setting, such as anywhere outside a laboratory. Explain what this kind of training is called and name the cortical structures involved.

Feedback: This is known as “classical conditioning”, first discovered and published by Ivan Pavlov (1897), who experimented with salivation (unconditioned response) as a response to the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus), but which was then paired with the ringing of a bell (conditioned stimulus). After only a few training sessions, the ringing of the bell elicited salivation (conditioned response). So, the bell now predicted salivation. Although this paradigm involved the auditory and autonomic systems, this trained pairing can occur exclusively in the visual system as well, where one image predicts the presentation of another image. In this case, the inferotemporal (TE) cortex, which is posterior to the perihinal cortex, each “preferring” their own respective images. After a small number of trials, the TE’s preferred image can be used to predict the presentation of the perihinal cortex’s preferred image. Moreover, timing of responses is critical: When the preferred image of the perhinal appeared, this cortex responded before those in the TE; but, when the preferred image of the TE appeared soon afterwards, perihinal neurons responded after the TE neurons did. This represents posterior-to-anterior flow of information. But, when TE neurons received signals that predicted the presentation of perihinal’s preferred stimulus, this represents anterior-to-posterior flow of information.

Subhead: Transformation from Elements to Percepts

Learning Objective: Identify three functions served by top-down inputs.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

Type: essay/short answer question

Title: Chapter 25 Question 55

55. What is the main function of the association cortex?

Feedback: There are several and usually border two or more adjacent cortices, such as the parietal-temporal-occipital association cortex. Overall, their function is to connect (associate) sensory stimuli with motor responses and/or elicit mental functions (memories) that associate sensory input and motor output. Mainly, the association cortex creates representations (cognitive constructs or memories) of the real world, using individual sensory input as building blocks. Thus, you have a more accurate representation of an apple if you have smelled, seen, tasted and touched one than if you have only, say, seen one and certainly more than if you have only read about one.

Subhead: Combining Sensory Modalities

Learning Objective: Identify two ways in which the function of association cortex can be inferred.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying