Chapter 6: Different Directions in Theorizing About Youth Crime and Delinquency

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Which of the following terms refers to all of the behaviour that a person develops as a result of societal responses to his or her initial deviance?

1. the criminal event
2. a criminal career
3. primary deviance
4. secondary deviance

2. Which theory of crime supported the principle of the “least possible interference” that lead to decarceration policies in the 1970s?

a. labelling theory

b. feminist theory

c. routine activity theory

d. lifecourse development theory

3. According to routine activity theory, what three components are required for a young person to commit a crime?

a. reinforcement of behaviour, normative definitions, exposure to behaviour models

b. motivated offender, suitable targets, absence of a capable guardian

c. weak family bonds, coercive school control, delinquent peer associations

d. self-defacing relationships, attraction to delinquency, delinquency self-enhancing

4. In the late 1960s, Burgess and Akers reformulated Sutherland’s theory and the learning principles from behaviourist psychology to formulate their theory of criminal behaviour. What was this new theory called?

a. opportunity theory

b. interactional theory

c. social learning theory

d. postmodernist theory

5. What theories were integrated by Regoli and Hewitt (1994) to produce the theory of differential oppression?

a. social bonding theory and social learning theory

b. social bonding theory, social control theory, and strain theory

c. social control theory, liberal conflict theory, and strain theory

d. social control theory, social learning theory, radical conflict theory

6. According to Regoli and Hewitt’s (1994) theory of differential oppression, which of the following were NOT one of the ways of adapting for children who are made to feel powerless by the oppressive acts of adults?

1. passive acceptance
2. exercise of illegitimate, coercive power
3. manipulation of peers
4. rebellion

7. According to lifecourse-developmental theory, which term refers to long-term trends or patterns?

1. trajectories
2. shifts
3. transitions
4. movements

8. According to Moffitt’s (1993) typology of developmental criminology, under what category does the majority of young offenders fit?

a. lifecourse-persistent

b. adolescence-limited

c. persisters

d. experimenters

9. According to the text, which of the following can illustrate disregard for gender analysis in a research study?

a. the use of androgynous terms

b. the use of ethnocentric language

c. the use of misogynous language

d. the use of gender-specific concepts

10. What did Freud argue that female crime and delinquency stemmed from?

1. the Electra complex
2. the Oedipus complex
3. antisocial personality
4. power-control issues

11. In criminology, which hypothesis argues that low crime rates among women and girls, compared to men and boys, is because women and girls are less likely to be caught and processed or reported to the police?

a. liberation hypothesis

b. chivalry hypothesis

c. feminist hypothesis

d. patriarchal hypothesis

12. According to the most recent biological explanations that link hormones to delinquency, what has been found?

1. Female violent offenders have similar levels of testosterone to violent male offenders.
2. Female violent offenders have higher levels of testosterone than non-violent women.
3. Female violent offenders have similar levels of testosterone to non-violent male offenders.
4. Females engaged in delinquent behaviour have similar levels of testosterone to males engaged in delinquent behaviour.

13. Why are cultural studies perspectives gaining prominence in criminology?

a. because they critique that North American theorizing ignores race, class, age, and sexual orientation

b. because of increasing harshness and the negative impact of the criminal justice system

c. because of rising public concerns about youth crime and the justice system

d. because the capitalist society is coercive and designed to support the class structure

SHORT ANSWER

1. Explain the meaning of the terms “primary deviance” and “secondary deviance.” Provide an example to illustrate these concepts.

• Primary deviance is the initial act. Anyone is potentially a “primary” deviant if he or she does things that would likely be considered deviant if they were known about by others.
• Secondary deviance refers to all the behaviour that a person develops as a result of societal responses to his or her primary deviance. Once a person is discovered, he or she may find it difficult to behave or be seen as anything other than deviant precisely because his or her deviance is known to others.

– Example: Johnny gets caught throwing eggs at a neighbour’s house, and as a result of this everyone in the community begins to see Johnny as a delinquent. He develops a deviant self-concept and begins doing drugs and vandalizing buildings. The act of throwing the egg’s at the neighbour’s house would be considered primary deviance, while the drug use and vandalism would be considered secondary deviance.

REF: 180

1. Outline some of the important contributions that opportunity theory makes to understanding crime.

• This perspective acknowledge that there is not one explanation for crime, but rather that different explanations may be required for different types of crimes.
• Decisions or situations that lead to a property crime may be quite different from those leading to an assault.
• This approach leads to a recognition that it is as or more important to understand why a person stops his or her involvement in criminal activity as it is to know why he or she began.
• Crime can increase even if there isn’t a change in the motivated offender, a suitable target, or the absence of a capable guardian but there is a change in routine everyday activities.
• According to rational choice theory, offenders rationally assess all information about the potential crime and make a rational choice based on an assessment of consequences. This involves a process that is sometimes very complex when an individual is making decisions about ``criminal involvement`` or may involve less complex decision making for things such as shoplifting.

REF: 183-184

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Outline the main contributions that Frank Tannenbaum, Edwin Lemert, and Howard Becker made to labelling theory.

Frank Tannenbaum

• He rejected the positivist belief that delinquents are somehow different from non-delinquents and that it is necessary to determine these differences to understand delinquent behaviour.
• Children engage in delinquent behaviour without knowing that others view it as delinquent or bad.
• There is a gradual shift from the definition of the specific act as evil to a definition of the individual (the individual is being labelled, not the behaviour)
• The best adult response to delinquent behaviour is to do nothing because the conflict that develops between a child’s play group and the community turns play into delinquent or criminal behaviour.
• Adults respond to children’s activity by trying to control or stop it and if children resent adult interference and act in a defiant manner, adults will define them as bad.

Edwin Lemert

• Primary deviance is the initial act. Anyone is potentially a “primary” deviant if he or she does things that would likely be considered deviant if they were known about by others.
• Secondary deviance refers to all of the behaviours that a person develops as a result of societal responses to his or her primary deviance.
• Once discovered, a person may find it very difficult to behave or be seen as anything other than deviant precisely because his or her deviance is known to others.
• It becomes increasingly difficult for a secondary deviant to not be deviant in the eyes of the community and as a result the person may begin to develop a self-concept as deviant and act accordingly.
• The transition from primary to secondary deviance involves a lengthy interaction between the person and societal reactions to both the person and her or his behaviour.

Howard Becker

• He argued that acts are not deviant until they are defined as such.
• Deviance is not inherent in an act, but rather is created by our responses to the act.
• Intentionally killing a person is usually considered murder but when it is committed by soldiers in war or as a form of capital punishment it is not considered murder.
• There is a process whereby people become delinquent that begins with attaching a label to a person in response to his or her behaviour. Once attached, the label is generalized to attach to everything that the person does. Deviance becomes a “master status,” meaning that no matter what her or his other qualities, a person who has been labelled will be seen and responded to as a deviant.

REF: 179-181

1. Explain the theory of differential oppression developed by Robert Regoli and John Hewitt (1994). How do children who are made to feel powerless by the oppressive acts of adults adapt?

• The theory of differential oppression integrates strain theory, social control theory, and liberal conflict theory.
• Social control is not always a positive force, and some aspects of social control can be oppressive.
• Oppression is defined as the unjust use or misuse of authority, which “often results from attempts by one group to impose its conception of order on another group.”
• People who are subject to oppressive measures of control are made into “objects” or are viewed as “things” and as a result, they come to view themselves as objects rather than subjects; they become passive and accepting rather than active subjects who exercise autonomy and control over their lives.
• Four main principles of the theory are the following: (1) adults emphasize order in the home and school and children are forced to abide by the rule of those in authority; (2) adults’ perceptions establish children as inferior, subordinate, and troublemakers; (3) the imposition of adults’ conceptions of order on children often becomes extreme to the point of oppression; and (4) when coercion and force become abuse or neglect, children often generalize this abuse of authority to other adults, such as the police or school authorities.
• Children who are made to feel powerless by the oppressive acts of adults adapt in four ways:

1. Passive acceptance—Children who are obedient out of fear behave much like slaves, prison inmates, and battered women. They are “fearful of freedom” and often learn to hate. Their hatred is repressed, which makes them susceptible to low self-esteem, alcoholism, and drug addiction.
2. Exercise of illegitimate, coercive power—The child attempts to demonstrate power over adults by engaging in illicit use of drugs or alcohol, crime, or sexual misbehaviour.
3. Manipulation of peers—The child tries to gain power through control of her or his peers. This strategy gives the child a feeling of empowerment.
4. Retaliation—children try to strike back at the people and institutions that oppress them. School vandalism is one way; assault and murder of teachers or parents is an extreme response. Some children become depressed or commit suicide.

REF: 187-188