Ch8 Exam Prep The Organization Of Knowledge In The Mind

Chapter 8

The Organization of Knowledge in the Mind

Test Bank

Multiple Choice

1. ____ knowledge refers to information regarding facts and ideas, which can be stated in terms of propositions (sometimes described as “knowing that”).

a. Semantic

b. Procedural

c. Declarative

d. Conceptual

REF: Declarative versus Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

2. Your knowledge about cognitive psychology, about world history, about your own personal history, and about mathematics all rely on your mental representation of what cognitive psychologists call ____ knowledge.

a. procedural

b. declarative

c. semantic

d. conceptual

REF: Declarative versus Procedural Knowledge

KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

3. ____ knowledge refers to information regarding how to execute a sequence of operations (sometimes described as “knowing how”).

a. How-to

b. Executive

c. Declarative

d. Procedural

REF: Declarative versus Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

4. Your knowledge of how to ride a bicycle, how to write your signature, how to drive a car to a familiar location, and how to catch a ball all depend on your mental representation of what cognitive psychologists call ____ knowledge.

a. how-to

b. executive

c. declarative

d. procedural

REF: Declarative versus Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

5. ____ refers to an approach to understanding cognition that involves an attempt to enable machines such as computers to simulate various cognitive processes that characterize human intelligence.

a. Elementary information process

b. The simulated intelligence view

c. Schematic simulation

d. Artificial intelligence

REF: Declarative versus Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

6. ____ refer(s) to the use of multiple approaches and techniques to come together in addressing a problem or in responding to a question.

a. The multiplicity method

b. The multi-techniques approach

c. Converging operations

d. Diverging operations

REF: Declarative versus Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

7. The fundamental unit of symbolic knowledge is typically viewed as a ____.

a. concept

b. word

c. morpheme

d. schema

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

8. A ____ refers to an idea or a thought about something that aids in understanding the world.

a. frame

b. concept

c. morpheme

d. schema

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

9. The fundamental unit of symbolic knowledge is a ____, which may be grouped into ____.

a. concept; categories

b. concept; hidden units

c. node; schemas

d. node; concepts

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

10. Animals, plants and geological formations are best described as _____.

a. artifact categories

b. classical concepts

c. fuzzy concepts

d. natural categories

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

11. Motor vehicles and kitchen appliances are best described as _____.

a. artifact categories

b. classical concepts

c. fuzzy concepts

d. natural categories

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

12. Which type of category is flexible and can change over time?

a. ad hoc categories

b. artifact categories

c. natural categories

d. polymorphous categories

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

13. Which of the following is not a defining feature of bachelor?

a. unmarried

b. childless

c. male

d. adult

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

14. ____ are essential elements of a given concept.

a. Defining features

b. Prototypical features

c. Characteristic features

d. Deep structures

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

15. The term wife is comprised of a number of components, namely adult, female, and married. These are called _____.

a. defining features

b. prototypical features

c. characteristic features

d. deep structures

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

16. A ____ feature is possessed by every instance of a concept, but a ____ feature need not be.

a. prototypical; defining

b. defining; prototypical

c. characteristic; defining

d. defining; characteristic

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge

KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

17. ____ are words such as bachelor that can be readily defined through defining features.

a. Fuzzy concepts

b. Reference concepts

c. Classical concepts

d. Prototypes

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

18. ______ are features that are typically present and are consistent with the exemplars for that particular concept.

a. Prototypes

b. Characteristic features

c. Schemas

d. Defining features

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

19. ____ typically described using characteristic features as opposed to defining features.

a. Fuzzy concepts

b. Reference concepts

c. Classical concepts

d. Exemplars

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

20. ____ are well-described by defining features.

a. Fuzzy concepts

b. Reference concepts

c. Classical concepts

d. Exemplars

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

21. Classical concepts are to ____ as fuzzy concepts are to ____.

a. defining features; prototypes

b. prototypes; defining features

c. exemplars; inheritance

d. inheritance; exemplars

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

22. ____ are typical representations of a category.

a. Fuzzy concepts

b. Classical concepts

c. Prototypes

d. Exemplars

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

23. According to the ____ approach, we have several typical representatives of categories that are used when trying to categorize concepts.

a. prototype

b. characteristic features

c. exemplar

d. defining features

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

24. According to the varying abstraction model (VAM), prototypes and exemplars are simply two extremes on a continuum of abstraction with exemplars nearer the ____ end of the spectrum and prototypes nearer the ____ end of the spectrum.

a. concrete; abstract

b. featural; concrete

c. abstract; averaged

d. averaged; featural

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

25. A(n) ____ refers to defining features that must be present to be considered part of a particular category.

a. exemplar

b. characteristic

c. inheritance

d. core

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

26. A(n) ____ view of meaning holds that people understand and categorize concepts in terms of implicit theories, or general ideas they have regarding those concepts.

a. exemplar-based

b. theory-based

c. inheritance-based

d. essential-based

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge

KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

27. A dog could be described as being a mammal that barks and has four legs, two ears, a tail, and a slightly elongated snout. Jenny’s neighbor has a “dog” that has lost a leg and his tail. According to a theory-based view of categorization, Jenny is most likely to classify the neighbor’s pet as ____.

a. an unknown animal

b. another type of animal

c. a type of dog

d. an unknown object

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge

KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

28. A child passes a person on the street that has a short hairstyle. Although this hairstyle is more typical for males, most children understand that the person could be a female. This understanding, that sometimes the underlying reality cannot be directly observed, is referred to as ____.

a. functionalism

b. essentialism

c. inheritance

d. fundamentalism

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

29. A ____ network refers to a web of labeled relations among interconnected elements.

a. frame

b. script

c. semantic

d. nodal

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

30. In the network approach, an “is a” category membership relation, which connects “pig” to “mammal,” establishes meaningful connections between ____.

a. nodes

b. schemas

c. frames

d. scripts

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

31. In the ____, the labeled relationship of attributes, which connects “furry” to “mammal,” establishes meaningful connections between nodes.

a. nodal approach

b. schematic approach

c. framework approach

d. network approach

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

32. A ____ refers to an element representing a concept within a semantic network.

a. frame

b. script

c. node

d. schema

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

33. According to a semantic-network model, when we think about cats, the ____ for cats becomes ____.

a. network; activated

b. frame; inhibited

c. node; inhibited

d. node; activated

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

34. In the network approach, the connections between nodes are ____ relationships, which might involve category membership, attributes, or some other semantic relation.

a. labeled

b. scripted

c. framed

d. causative

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

35. Information can economically be represented in a hierarchical model when items lower in the hierarchy are assumed to have the properties of items higher in the hierarchy. This is referred to as ____.

a. subsumption

b. inheritance

c. inclusion

d. supersession

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

36. When shown a red, edible, roundish object, you would most probably call it an apple, rather than identifying its type like Honeycrisp apple or a Red Delicious apple. This suggests that “apple” is ____ of the concept.

a. the basic level of specificity

b. a defining feature

c. a characteristic feature

d. a deep characteristic

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge

KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

37. A concept’s basic level of specificity is the one that has the ____ number of distinctive properties.

a. smallest

b. prototypical

c. standard

d. largest

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

38. A ____ refers to a mental framework for meaningfully organizing various interrelated concepts.

a. construct

b. proposition

c. schema

d. domain

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

39. Which mental framework provides a meaningful structure for concepts that are related, and provides general facts about the concept that allows inferences based on prior experiences?

a. construct

b. schemas

c. script

d. proposition

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

40. Ben’s parents call to tell him they will be going to a fancy restaurant for dinner. Without any additional information, most people will assume that someone paid a tip to the waiter or waitress at dinner that night. The ability to fill in missing information (e.g., knowing that a tip was paid) best illustrates the use of ____.

a. associations

b. schemas

c. semantics

d. concepts

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

41. A ____ contains information about the particular order in which things occur.

a. script

b. node

c. network

d. schema

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

42. In ____ processing, only one elementary information process is executed at any one time, and multiple processes are handled sequentially.

a. parallel

b. serial

c. distributed

d. monotonic

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

43. _____ is specialized vocabulary that a particular group uses that may not be understood by those who are not members of the group.

a. Jargon

b. Word-superiority

c. Synthesis

d. Obfuscation

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

44. Computer simulations of ____ follow certain rules (if–then rules), including an “if” clause and a “then” clause.

a. manifestations

b. activations

c. productions

d. convergences

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

45. If your car is veering toward the left side of the road, then you should steer toward the right side of the road. The “if” clause includes a set of conditions that must be met in order to implement the “then” clause. This illustrates the use of ____.

a. semantic simulations

b. action rules

c. declarative procedures

d. production rules

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

46. A(n) ____ includes the entire set of rules for executing a particular task or using a particular skill.

a. production system

b. procedural loop

c. semantic cycle

d. action-execution system

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

47. If the crosswalk light is red, you should stop and continue to monitor the light to see if it stays red. If the crosswalk light is green, you should start moving. This is a simple ____.

a. production system

b. procedural loop

c. semantic cycle

d. action-execution system

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge

KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

48. Which of the following is not a type of non-declarative knowledge in Larry Squire’s theory?

a. episodic knowledge

b. procedural knowledge

c. classical and operant conditioning

d. priming

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

49. Sarah’s grandmother always bakes an apple pie when Sarah comes to visit. Now, whenever Sarah smells an apple pie, she immediately thinks of her grandmother. This type of knowledge is referred to as ____ knowledge.

a. declarative

b. simple associative

c. simple non-associative

d. priming

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

50. Timmy, a four-year-old, has learned that to stay warm in the winter cold, he must wear lots of clothes. He learned this after several trials of going outside without a coat on and quickly returning to the house uncomfortably cold. This type of knowledge is referred to as ____ knowledge.

a. connectionist

b. simple non-associative

c. simple associative

d. priming

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

51. As your explicit access to nondeclarative knowledge decreases, your implicit access____.

a. is effectively eliminated

b. becomes easier and faster

c. becomes easier but is slower

d. becomes slower but is easier

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

52. There has a construction crew right outside of Mr. Jones’s second-grade classroom for months. When the construction began, Mr. Jones found that the children were easily distracted by the noise. Now that the construction has been going on for so long, the children typically pay no attention to the noises. This phenomenon is habituation, which is a type of ____ knowledge.

a. declarative.

b. simple associative.

c. simple non-associative

d. priming.

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge

KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

53. ____ refers to the facilitation of information retrieval, as a result of prior stimulation or activation of related information (or even of the same information).

a. Production

b. Spreading activation

c. Priming

d. Conceptual dependency

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

54. If someone asks you to spell the word sight, you will probably spell it differently, depending on whether you have been talking about vision (“s-i-g-h-t”) or about locations for an archaeological dig (“s-i-t-e”). This bias reflects the ____ effect.

a. production

b. spreading activation

c. priming

d. conceptual dependency

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

55. According to Michael Posner, ____ priming refers to priming based on meaningful context or meaningful information.

a. contextual

b. semantic

c. meaning-related

d. repetition

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

56. According to Michael Posner, ____ priming is based on prior exposure to a word or other stimulus that affects a subsequent retrieval of that information.

a. contextual

b. semantic

c. repetition

d. exposure

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

57. ____ integrates a network representation for declarative knowledge and a production-system representation for procedural knowledge.

a. The declarative-procedural frame approach

b. ACT (Adaptive control of thought)

c. Conceptual dependency approach

d. Artificial intelligence

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

58. Anderson’s ____ model of mental representation and information processing incorporates both declarative and procedural knowledge.

a. PDP

b. hierarchical

c. dual-code theory

d. ACT-R.

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

59. Anderson referred to temporal information about the sequencing of action and events as temporal ____.

a. nodes

b. networks

c. strings

d. clusters

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

60. In network models, each node is receptive to stimulation from neighboring nodes, resulting in ____.

a. conceptual dependency

b. spread of activation

c. habituation learning

d. serial processing

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

61. According to ____, the amount of activation between a prime and a given target node is a function of the number of links connecting the prime and the target and the relative strength of each connection.

a. the links model

b. the compound-node model

c. the nodal-strength view

d. spreading activation theories

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

62. In ____, stimuli activate nodes within a network and that activation causes connections between nodes to become active.

a. connected excitation

b. connected activation

c. spreading excitation

d. spreading activation

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

63. According to Anderson (1980), the first stage of the acquisition of procedural knowledge is the ____ stage.

a. cognitive

b. associative

c. autonomous

d. affective

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

64. According to Anderson (1980), while we are in the ____ stage of learning how to drive a standard-shift car, we explicitly think about each rule for stepping on the clutch, gas, or brake pedal, while also trying to shift gears.

a. cognitive

b. associative

c. autonomous

d. affective

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge

KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

65. According to Anderson (1980), while we are in the ____ stage of learning how to drive a standard-shift car, we must consciously and consistently practice each rule while shifting gears.

a. cognitive

b. associative

c. autonomous

d. affective

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

66. According to Anderson (1980), while we are in the ____ stage of learning how to drive a standard-shift car, we have integrated all of the various rules into a single, coordinated series of actions.

a. cognitive

b. associative

c. autonomous

d. affective

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

67. ____ refers to the process by which we construct a mental representation of nondeclarative knowledge.

a. Activation

b. Implicitization

c. Machination

d. Proceduralization

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

68. The process of learning to drive a standard shift moves from having to carefully think about each step in shifting gears to being able to do so without explicit thought. This process can be described as ____.

a. activation

b. implicitization

c. machination

d. proceduralization

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge

KEY: Bloom’s: Apply

69. Neurological and other research indicates that human cognition primarily involves ____.

a. parallel processing

b. serial processing

c. schematic production

d. multi-rule activation

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

70. According to ____ models, we handle very large numbers of cognitive operations at once through a network distributed across incalculable numbers of locations in the brain.

a. connection strength

b. parallel distributed processing

c. knowledge patterns

d. serial distributed processing

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

71. In the parallel distributed processing model proposed by McClelland and Rumelhart, the network is made of ____ and the knowledge is represented by the pattern of connections.

a. concepts

b. nodes

c. propositions

d. neuron-like units

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

72. In the brain, a neuron can be ____.

a. excitatory only

b. inhibitory only

c. excitatory or inhibitory, but not inactive

d. excitatory, inhibitory, or inactive

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

73. In the parallel distributed processing model proposed by McClelland and Rumelhart, knowledge is represented by ____.

a. the specific neuron-like units connected

b. the pattern of interconnections

c. the location of the neuronal network

d. the location of the nodal network

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

74. In the brain, at any one given time, a given neuron may assume each of the following activities, EXCEPT one. Identify the exception.

a. inactive

b. excitatory

c. inhibitory

d. dormant

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

75. In the parallel distributed processing model proposed by McClelland and Rumelhart, the more often a particular connection is activated, the ____.

a. weaker the strength of the connection

b. greater the strength of the connection.

c. fewer the number of neuron-like units necessary to activate

d. greater the number of neuron-like units involved in the activation

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

76. According to the parallel distributed processing model proposed by McClelland and Rumelhart, whenever we use knowledge, we ____.

a. change our representation of it

b. arrive at a more efficient storage

c. leave our representation of it unchanged

d. risk forgetting it

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

77. “Connectionist” models are also referred to as ____.

a. elementary information process models

b. test-operate-test-exit models

c. production systems

d. parallel distributed processing models

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

78. In early artificial intelligence research, investigators tried to write programs that were ____.

a. as domain-general as possible

b. domain-specific

c. in keeping with the latest brain research

d. in keeping with the psychological research

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

79. The term modularity refers to the ____,

a. particular mode of thought in which the brain functions

b. degree to which information is able to be classified into modules for processing

c. processing of information in the brain via separate and specialized “units.”

d. specific regions of the brain that alter their activity to process complicated information

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

80. One of the most influential books in the field of cognitive science during the 1980s was ____’s The Modularity of Mind, which presented the argument for extreme domain-specificity.

a. James McClelland

b. David Rumelhart

c. Jerry Fodor

d. Herbert Simon

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Remember

Essay Questions

1. Compare and contrast natural and artificial categories.

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Understand

2. What are schemas? What characteristics do schemas have that ensure wide flexibility in their use?

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Understand

3. What are scripts and what are their important features?

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Understand

4. Compare and contrast classical and fuzzy concepts.

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Understand

5. Describe Anderson’s ACT-R model and its components.

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

6. Discuss the theory-based approach to categorization.

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

7. Describe Newell and Simon’s (1972) production system and production rules.

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Understand

8. What are exemplars and how are they used?

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Understand

9. List and then define the various types of categories. Explain the similarities and differences between them.

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Understand

10. Describe prototype theory and its key constructs.

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Understand

11. Define and describe the three levels of categories using an example.

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Understand

12. Describe briefly what procedural and declarative knowledge are.

REF: Introduction KEY: Understand

13. Provide an example of a schema and explain the various components.

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Understand

14. Create a semantic network with three levels of nodes for the category of food.

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Understand

15. Explain characteristic and defining features. Is it possible for them to be different for a particular concept? Why or why not?

REF: Organization of Declarative Knowledge KEY: Understand

16. Outline the assumptions of the parallel distributed processing (PDP) models.

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge

KEY: Understand

17. What are semantic and repetition priming? How could you use them to improve the efficiency of your studying?

REF: Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

18. Identify and describe the three steps in the acquisition of procedural knowledge.

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

19. What is meant by the modularity of the mind?

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Understand

20. Compare and contrast the network and connectionist approaches with respect to how they accommodate learning.

REF: Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge KEY: Bloom’s: Understand