Ch6 | Test Questions & Answers – Social Learning Theory and

6

Social Learning Theory and Social Control Theory

CHAPTER OUTLINE

6.1 Differential Association

In one of the first systematic textbooks in criminology, Sutherland surveyed the discipline and cautioned criminologists to not simply assume the validity of popular and legal categories such as “crime,” “criminality,” and the “crime rate.” Instead, grounded in sociology, criminologists should study both crime and law. Over the course of his career, Sutherland attempted to integrate existing research into his general theory of crime: differential association. Influenced by the Chicago School’s concept of social disorganization, and Mead and Thomas’ socio-psychological work, Sutherland intended his theory to explain both the process and content of criminal learning. As seen in the extended quote by Bernard, Snipes, and Gerould on Mead’s theory, Sutherland’s concept of individual “definitions” for violating the law is grounded in social interaction.

The theory can be summarized in three principles. First, criminal behavior, like all other behavior, is learned, not inherently biological. Second, individuals learn criminal techniques and criminal motivations or justifications. The principle of differential association asserts that a person engages in crime when (a) definitions favorable to violating the law exceed unfavorable definitions, and (b) contacts with criminal patterns exceed anticriminal patterns. Exposure to criminal definitions and contacts alike vary in intensity, frequency, duration, and priority. Third, Sutherland notes that although crime expresses needs and values, those same needs and values also explain noncriminal acts. Sutherland’s work addressed individual behavior, but he also attempted to explain why certain social groups experience higher crime rates, for example young adult males, “Negroes,” and those living in urban areas.

Sutherland’s last version of the theory linked the principle of differential association to sociological analysis of changes in social relations and social control. With the Industrial Revolution, the United States shifted from relatively simple to more complex forms of organization. At the same time, the uniformity of traditional social control relaxed in the face of increased individualism. This process of social disorganization (or, more accurately, social reorganization) was exacerbated by immigration and resulting cultural conflict. Crime was an expression of this conflict. In short, differential social disorganization explained the origin of crime, whereas differential association explained its transmission from one person to another. In White Collar Crime (1949), Sutherland attempted to combine his work with Merton’s notion of anomie. Sutherland thus noted that social disorganization could result from either a lack of standards or conflicting standards.

Evaluation of Differential Association

Sutherland’s basic argument seems to offer a precise sociological explanation of why some individuals commit criminal acts but others do not. Normal persons learn crime when influenced by specific cultural processes. Some recent research supports the theory. Church, Wharton, and Taylor (2009) found that association with delinquent peers is the best predictor of future delinquency. But differential association theory has also been controversial. There are three major criticisms. First, foundational concepts such as “excess” are so abstract that they are not easily measured. And what, exactly, are “associations” with “criminal patterns”? Another dilemma is that the causal mechanism rests on circular reasoning: to say that people who engage in crime are people who are motivated to do so does not provide a very precise starting point for research. Finally, Sutherland depicts social actors as empty vessels with no capacity for choice because an excess of procriminal tendencies can determine behavior.

6.2 Social Learning Theory

Sutherland’s work stimulated many new lines of inquiry, including social learning theory. This theory combines basic principles of behavioral psychology (e.g., Skinnerian conditioning) with structural explanations such as subcultures or anomie. The basic premise of social learning theory is that social behavior is determined neither by inner personality drives nor by outer sociological and environmental factors. Instead, learning is a cognitive process accomplished through rewards and punishments.

Differential Reinforcement

Jeffery’s theory of differential reinforcement depicts crime as a response to reinforcing stimuli. In this view, criminal action is related to an individual’s conditioning history. In an environment where an individual has been rewarded for crime, aversive consequences linked to crime might not control or prevent criminal action. Related research by Burgess and Akers notes that social behavior responds to a complicated combination of rewards and punishments. Criminal behavior is learned in seven stages: through direct conditioning or imitation; through social interaction with others; in reinforcement groups; with effective and available reinforcers; the norms to which those reinforcers are applied; when the normatively applied behavior is more highly reinforced than noncriminal behavior; and results from the amount, frequency, and probability of reinforcements. The theory must explain all seven of these stages, but two factors are central: (1) differential reinforcement, and (2) positive and negative definitions. Behavior is strengthened by positive reinforcement (reward) and weakened by aversive stimuli (punishment). However, deviant behavior is also related to its learned meanings.

Akers applies the general principles of social learning theory to a variety of deviant acts including how a person first engages in the deviance, how that person progresses to more frequent engagement, substantive reinforcing events, and the content of definitions favorable to continuing that form of deviance.

Suicide provides an interesting test of social learning because taking one’s life cannot reinforce one’s future behavior. However, Akers’ four-stage model notes people learn (1) that suicide is a solution for some, (2) gendered suicidal techniques, (3) that suicide attempts receive considerable attention (thus some attempts are not intended to be fatal), and (4) the reactions of others to attempt to shape future suicidal behavior.

Drug use is another example of learned deviance. In a study of alcohol and marijuana, Akers and his colleagues (1979) found that teen use of both substances increases when teens associate with other users and are rewarded for the behavior. The model explains 55 percent of the difference between alcohol users and abstainers, and 68 percent of the difference between marijuana users and abstainers.

In a recent update, Akers provides a synthesis of social learning within a social structural understanding. Figure 6.1 illustrates the complexity of the social learning theory. However, aside from a major 1999 symposium in theoretical criminology, there have been no new major developments in the approach. Sampson was critical of social learning’s emphasis on statistics at the expense of conceptual and theoretical development. Morash criticized the individual-level focus and inattention to gendered differences of power, resources, and opportunities. Krohn asked for more attention to differential association. In response, Akers (1999, 2008) suggested three areas where social learning theory might be developed: integration with social disorganization theory, improved operationalization of concepts, and exploration of additional learning variables.

Evaluation of Social Learning Theory

Aside from Akers and his small number of followers, not much research has tested social learning theory. The primary difficulty with social learning theory might be its policy implications. If behaviorist claims that deviant behavior is learned are correct, then deviance can also be “unlearned” through controversial behavioral modification techniques including drug-based therapies, electrocardiogram treatment (EKG), chemotherapy, and confrontational juvenile “boot camps.” None of these have proven effective, but all are reminiscent of a violent criminal justice system past.

6.3 Social Control Theory

The original concept of “social control” stemmed from work by sociologists and social psychologists and referred broadly to all institutions and processes that guarantee social order. Since the 1940s the concept has narrowed; it is stripped of its critical meaning and now focuses on small groups. This narrower approach is evident in studies with the central assumption that crime is likely to occur when social bonds between individual and society are weakened. The text presents one of the most well-known and influential studies of control theory criminology: Travis Hirschi’s social control (or social bonding) theory.

In Causes of Delinquency (1969) Hirschi asserted that most sociological theories of crime have yet to show that delinquency is caused by the strains of “sex, race, social class, neighborhood, mother’s employment, the broken home, the size of family, and so forth.” Thus a more fruitful approach would consider the causes of conformity. Hirschi began with the seemingly biological proposition that most people have antisocial tendencies. Whether one deviates or follows the law depends on four factors:

1. attachments to parents, school, and peers.

2. commitment to conventional lines of action;

3. involvement in conventional activities; and

4. belief in conventional values.

Hirschi studied a large sample of juveniles in the San Francisco–Oakland area in the mid-1960s to test his theory. From this study he made seven generalizations, including such points as juveniles who perform well in school and who have strong familial attachments have lower levels of delinquency; that is, “the greater a youth’s stake in conformity, then . . . the less likely he or she is to be delinquent.” Hirschi also argued that gangs do not provide members with cohesive associations, the import of techniques of neutralization is unclear, and no section of society encourages delinquency more than any other. Finally, he denied a causal link between class and delinquency. He later reformulated his theory to focus more on child socialization. He asserted that good childrearing and proper discipline are the best ways to prevent or control juvenile delinquency. For Hirschi, some situations were less able to provide necessary behavioral monitoring and punishment: abuse, working mothers, large families, parents with criminal records, and single-parent families. To wit, “the single parent (usually a woman) . . . is less able to devote time to monitoring and punishment, and is more likely to be involved in negative, abusive contacts with her children.” He forcefully rejected theories that stress the importance of poverty, class, or unemployment and argued instead for three controversial policies of control: childrearing classes in high school, teachers and parents working together to better supervise, and governmental incentives for families to raise law-abiding children.

Some research shows that Hirschi’s concepts need refinement. Cernkovich and Giordano (1987) find his idea of “attachment” too vague. Booth, Farrell, and Varano (2008) note that social control is gendered. Involvement in church and nonsport school activities reduces delinquency for boys but not girls. Involvement in nontraditional female activities—including sports—reduces female delinquency. Bernard (1987) charges that Hirschi’s reasoning is circular; he confuses a definition of conformity with its causes. Agnew’s (1985) longitudinal research casts serious doubt on Hirschi’s empirical work in two ways. Control theory could not explain serious forms of juvenile crime, and the causal relation between delinquency and control is bidirectional (i.e., delinquency can affect control). Payne and Salotti (2008) attempted to combine control and social learning theories in their study of college alcohol and drug use, and concluded that the strongest explanations emerge when the theories are applied together.

Evaluation of Social Control Theory

Hirschi’s formalized theory lends itself to empirical testing and is very influential. The theory has strong empirical support from some researchers. Others have attempted to pinpoint the importance of strict control in institutions such as schools.

6.4 Self-Control Theory

Self-control and control balance theory intend to be “general theories of crime.” Their common focus is the concept of control.

Gottfredson and Hirschi’s Theory of Self-Control

Hirschi’s collaboration with Michael Gottfredson in A General Theory of Crime (1990) shifts emphasis to differences in “self-control” or “the differential tendency of people to avoid criminal acts whatever the circumstances in which they find themselves.” This requires a focus on both the characteristics of self-control and factors that retard it; these characteristics are derived from the nature of crime itself. Individuals with low self-control will have a higher propensity to engage in criminal and deviant behavior, such as smoking, drinking, using drugs, gambling, having illegitimate children, and engaging in illicit sexual intercourse. They tend to be adventuresome, active rather than cerebral, have unstable personal lives, and are unsympathetic to the suffering of others. However, low self-control alone cannot explain crime; people also need the opportunity for criminal activity. Gottfredson and Hirschi locate the causes of low self-control in poor childrearing practices: parents who (1) do not monitor behavior; (2) do not recognize deviant behavior; and (3) do not punish such behavior. They additionally argue that many supposed causes of crime are actually consequences of low self-control. For example, people with low self-control are attracted to gangs. Shifting from a multifaceted theory of social control to a monocausal approach, Gottfredson and Hirschi attempted a general theory of crime in which delinquency, white-collar, and organized crime are all explained by low self-control. The theory has generated much research, but results have been mixed. Some note that the theory is lacking when gender and age are considered, and others note that key concepts such as “self-control” and “opportunity” need more precision. Hay and Forrest (2008) point out that these variables interact.

Evaluation of Self-Control Theory

There are problems with self-control theory. The theory seems based on a tautology. Specifically, if crime is the result of low self-control, and if a propensity for crime is defined as an indicator of low self-control, then low self-control causes low-self control. Furthermore, the concept of “low self-control” is not adequately defined for empirical investigation, nor does it adequately consider cultural variation in offending rates; cross-cultural differences might be the effects of different forms of social organization. Other criminologists argue that some forms of crime seem to require high levels of self-control, such as white-collar, political, syndicated, and state crimes.

A heated dispute has erupted within criminology as a result of this theory. On the one hand are those who argue that high and rising juvenile crime rates are a result of lax discipline of children and the cultural permissiveness of the 1960s. Liberal parenting is partly to blame for increasing rates of delinquent youth. The solution, according to conservative followers of Hirschi, is to tighten up discipline in the home and at school, reduce divorce rates, restore religious values throughout society, and reduce welfare payments. Liberal critics of this approach, on the other hand, argue that high violent crime rates have little to do with lax discipline in society and much more to do with the unappealing consequences of unrestrained free enterprise. Chief among these consequences are progressive destruction of jobs and livelihood, growing gaps between the rich and the poor, reduction in public assistance to the needy (especially families with children), erosion of communal networks of mutual support, increasing materialistic cultural trends, unregulated marketing of violence, and fewer social and political alternatives. Liberal critics also point out that the increasing use of corporal punishment might actually increase delinquency. The United States has high rates of crime and punitive control; it has the highest incarceration rates in the world. Punitive control and high rates of violent crime might be consequences of the same problem: The United States is a thoroughly violent society.

6.5 Control Balance Theory

Charles Tittle developed an alternative theory of deviance and control balance. Within this theory, Tittle puts forth six categories of deviance:

1. Predation—e.g., physical violence, theft, rape, and robbery.

2. Exploitation—e.g., price-fixing and unsafe working conditions.

3. Defiance—e.g., vandalism and political protests.

4. Plunder—e.g., genocide and “ethnic cleansing.”

5. Decadence—e.g., sex with children, public humiliation of others, and sadistic and torturous behavior.

6. Submission—e.g., permitting or soliciting abuse of oneself.

Deviance, according to Tittle, is not simply a result of “low” self-control, but rather an imbalance in self-control. Control balance refers to the amount of control one experiences in proportion to the amount of control one exercises. Control surplus is when an individual exercises more control than he or she experiences, and a control deficit is when an individual experiences more control than he or she exercises. Deviance is likely to occur among those who have either a control surplus or a control deficit. Control surpluses lead to deviance in the forms of exploitation, plunder, or decadence. Control deficits lead to deviance in the forms of predation, defiance, and submission. Tittle lists four motivating factors that stimulate control-imbalanced individuals to engage in deviance: predisposition, situation, constraint, and opportunity.

Evaluation of Control Balance Theory

This is a good example of integrated deviance theory that appears to be robust enough to explain a variety of criminal activities. However, there are some weaknesses. What is the actual difference between predation and exploitation? Braithwaite suggests a series of social changes that would incorporate control-balance theory: greater equality of control, control that is exercised respectfully, acceptance that control is desirable, and it always occurs within a tight-knit community.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Have students go through Hirschi’s social control theory in class. Ask them to write about how attachment, commitment, involvement, and beliefs work in their own lives to prevent them from being delinquent.

2. Have the students do an informal (ungraded) writing assignment that involves recalling a time in their lives when they were engaged in some delinquency. How do they account for their behavior? What were their “social bonds” at that time? Does this exercise support or challenge Hirschi’s theory? How?

3. Show the documentary Devil’s Playground (2002) in class as the basis for a discussion of social control theory.

4. Assign students to watch different national and local television newscasts. Have students chart the crimes that are covered in each newscast. Next, have students characterize each crime according to Tittle’s typology: predation, exploitation, defiance, plunder, decadence, and submission. Have students present their findings to the class then open the floor for discussion.

TEST BANK FOR CHAPTER 6

Multiple-Choice Questions

1. Which criminologist(s) wrote the first systematic textbook in U.S. criminology?

a. Sutherland

b. Bandura

c. Gottfredson and Hirschi

d. Charles Tittle

2. According to Sutherland, how do people learn “definitions favorable to violating the law”?

a. By hearing others’ favorable definitions toward crime

b. By learning the cultural lessons of greed and competition

c. By insisting that they get their own desires met at all times

d. By seeing others manipulate the system successfully for their own gain

3. According to Sutherland, what two elements does the learning of criminal behavior include?

a. Opportunities and means

b. Techniques and opportunities

c. Justifications and opportunities

d. Justifications and techniques

4. Problems with Sutherland’s theory of differential association emerge when a researcher

a. develops antisocial tendencies.

b. explores the biological foundations of aberrant behavior.

c. digs more deeply into the psychology of individual criminals.

d. tries to empirically measure some of the concepts.

5. In developing his theory of differential social organization, Sutherland was concerned about explaining

a. why crime rates vary within social groups.

b. both the content and process of criminal learning.

c. individual variations in criminal offending.

d. who is ultimately responsible for crime.

6. According to Sutherland, differential social disorganization is produced by

a. waves of immigration, cultural stability, and political and economic individualism.

b. waves of immigration, cultural conflict, and political and economic security.

c. waves of immigration, cultural stability, and political and economic materialism.

d. waves of immigration, culture conflict, and an absence of traditional social control.

7. What are the two types of social disorganization that Sutherland described?

a. anomie and consensus

b. mechanical and organic

c. lack of standards and conflict of standards

d. unclear standards and competing standards

8. Social learning theory combines aspects of differential association theory as well as

a. positivist criminology.

b. behavioral psychology.

c. transpersonal psychology.

d. Marxist sociology.

9. A basic premise of social learning theory is that social behavior is a

a. cognitive process in which conventional morality is the basis of right and wrong.

b. cognitive process in which spiritual convictions are acted upon.

c. result of living in confusing times.

d. cognitive process in which personality and environment reciprocally interact.

10. Using behavioral psychology and applicable social learning theory, social behavior is reinforced

a. by individuals who assist in the development of those skills.

b. through a process of unconditional learning where that behavior is improved each time.

c. through a process of conditioned learning that emphasizes rewards or punishments.

d. through a process of guiding and coaxing into deviance.

11. Which of the following is NOT one of the seven stages of learned behavior?

a. Criminal behavior is learned independent of any other stimuli.

b. Criminal behavior is learned in small groups that have a major influence on the individual.

c. Learning criminal behavior depends on the available and effective reinforcers within the individual’s environment.

d. The strength of criminal behavior is a direct function of the amount, frequency, and probability of its reinforcement.

12. According to Akers, social behavior is

a. strengthened by reward.

b. often unpredictable.

c. weakened by aversive stimuli.

d. both a and c.

13. Suicide lends itself to a social learning analysis because

a. it illustrates that shooting is “masculine,” whereas a drug overdose is “feminine.”

b. individuals who commit suicide are teaching others how to do it.

c. the beginning and end of the act are clearly delineated in time.

d. people learn successful techniques and justifications for attempting suicide.

14. In a recent revision of social learning theory, Akers included __________ variables in the analysis.

a. biological

b. cognitive

c. social-structural

d. cultural

15. One serious dilemma of social learning theory has to do with

a. policy implications, which advocate controversial therapies.

b. generous praise for other theories.

c. how to treat “deviants” when they don’t want to be treated.

d. reeducation for those whose learning is not appropriate.

16. Hirschi believes that for a system of social control to be effective, children must fear

a. their parents.

b. punishment.

c. God.

d. each other.

17. Which of the following is one of Hirschi’s generalizations about juvenile delinquency?

a. Juveniles engage less in delinquency the more they are attached to their families.

b. Juveniles engage less in delinquency the better they perform in school.

c. Members of delinquent gangs do not have cohesive or warm associations with fellow gang members.

d. Hirschi made all of the above generalizations.

18. Relying on “common sense,” Hirschi believed that

a. children must be punished for their misdeeds.

b. children must never be punished for their misdeeds.

c. religious conversion results in delinquent behavior.

d. economic security frustrates children.

19. Hirschi advocated that

a. childrearing classes be mandatory for all parents.

b. parents and teachers must cooperate for the well-being of children.

c. families should have incentives to raise conforming children.

d. all of the above.

20. Hirschi has been criticized for being too

a. liberal.

b. conservative.

c. political.

d. empirical.

21. Liberals disagree with Hirschi because they believe that corporal punishment

a. is the best means of instilling values.

b. is the only means of instilling values.

c. and crime rates are both symptoms of social problems; therefore, one cannot be the solution for the other.

d. and crime rates work at odds with each other for preventing delinquency.

22. The theory of self-control, by Gottfredson and Hirschi, defines self-control as “the differential tendency of people to

a. do criminal acts in a variety of situations.”

b. avoid criminal acts whatever the circumstances in which they find themselves.”

c. do criminal acts in specific situations.”

d. have illegitimate children.”

23. According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, low self-control coupled with __________ increase an individual’s propensity to commit crime.

a. determination

b. free will

c. opportunity

d. physical strength

24. Which of the following is one the five chief aspects of low self-control?

a. thrill seeking and pleasure avoidance

b. immediate gratification and thrill seeking

c. good work habits and regular church attendance

d. poor work habits and weekend warrior activities

25. What are the causes of low self-control, according to Gottfredson and Hirschi?

a. retrogressive attitudes

b. cultural images of affluence

c. poor parenting

d. aggressiveness

26. Proper parenting should include the following to ensure a healthy degree of self-control among children:

a. Strict and authoritarian controls on all aspects of children’s lives and limited engagement in outside activities.

b. Liberal allowances for children to do what they want and learn from their own mistakes.

c. Monitoring children’s behavior and reporting them to the police when they commit crimes.

d. Monitoring children’s behavior, recognizing deviance when it happens, and punishing deviance appropriately.

27. If low self-control is both a symptom and a cause of crime, then the theory of self-control is

a. tautological.

b. perfectly logical.

c. psychological.

d. sociological.

28. Which of the following is among the four types of deviance outlined by Tittle’s theory of control-balance?

a. innovation, rebellion, and retreatism

b. predation, exploitation, and plunder

c. normal, useful, and inevitable

d. demoralization and primitive rebellion

29. Predation, as outlined in Tittle’s control balance theory, refers to

a. theft, rape, homicide, robbery, and assault.

b. price-fixing, unsafe workplaces, influence peddling, and contract killing.

c. autocratic behavior, ethnic cleansing, and environmental destruction.

d. group sex with children, humiliating others for entertainment, and sadistic torture.

30. Decadence, as outlined in Tittle’s control-balance theory, refers to

a. theft, rape, homicide, robbery, and assault.

b. price-fixing, unsafe workplaces, influence peddling, and contract killing.

c. autocratic behavior, ethnic cleansing, and environmental destruction.

d. group sex with children, humiliating others for entertainment, and sadistic torture.

31. Plunder, as outlined in Tittle’s control balance theory, refers to

a. theft, rape, homicide, robbery, and assault.

b. price-fixing, unsafe workplaces, influence peddling, and contract killing.

c. autocratic behavior, ethnic cleansing, and environmental destruction.

d. group sex with children, humiliating others for entertainment, and sadistic torture.

32. Exploitation, as outlined in Tittle’s control balance theory, refers to

a. theft, rape, homicide, robbery, and assault.

b. price-fixing, unsafe workplaces, influence peddling, and contract killing.

c. autocratic behavior, ethnic cleansing, and environmental destruction.

d. group sex with children, humiliating others for entertainment, and sadistic torture.

33. A control surplus occurs when an individual

a. exercises more control than he or she experiences.

b. experiences more control than he or she exercises.

c. has more power and authority than he or she knows how to handle.

d. has less power and authority than he or she knows how to handle.

34. A control deficit occurs when an individual

a. exercises more control than he or she experiences.

b. experiences more control than she or he exercises.

c. has more power and authority than he or she knows how to handle.

d. has less power and authority than he or she knows how to handle.

35. In which forms of deviance are individuals with control deficits likely to engage?

a. exploitation, defiance, and submission

b. predation, exploitation, and decadence

c. predation, defiance, and submission

d. exploitation, plunder, and decadence

36. In which forms of deviance are individuals with control surpluses likely to engage?

a. exploitation, defiance, and submission

b. predation, exploitation, and decadence

c. predation, defiance, and submission

d. exploitation, plunder, and decadence

37. Who among the following constructed a theory that rests on a seemingly biological premise?

a. Sutherland

b. Hirschi

c. Tittle

d. Agnew

38. Which criminologist used longitudinal research to test Hirschi’s theory and found that it does not explain serious forms of juvenile delinquency?

a. Sutherland

b. Tittle

c. Agnew

d. Skinner

39. Which of the following is NOT a key concept in social control theory?

a. attachment

b. commitment

c. involvement

d. belief

40. What have researchers found regarding the relationship between juvenile delinquency and sports?

a. Boys who do sports have lower levels of juvenile delinquency.

b. For boys, sports is unrelated to level of juvenile delinquency.

c. Girls who do sports have lower levels of juvenile delinquency.

d. Girls who do sports have higher levels of juvenile delinquency.

True or False Questions

1. _____ The basic premise of the social learning theory is that social behavior is a cognitive process in which personality and environment engage in a continuous process of reciprocal interaction.

2. _____ According to Akers, surplus populations are created directly and indirectly.

3. _____ Using a social learning approach, criminal behavior is learned through direct conditioning or through imitation.

4. _____ Sutherland’s differential association concept explains the origins of crime.

5. _____ Sutherland’s differential social organization concept explains the transmission of crime.

6. _____ In his pioneering research, Sutherland found that every major corporation was involved in white-collar crime.

7. _____ With his identification of the differential association and social organization hypotheses, Sutherland was the first criminologist to attempt a general theory of crime.

8. _____ According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, low self-control keeps people out of trouble with the law.

9. _____ People with low self-control are sedate, intelligent, cerebral, and lead placid lives.

10. _____ People who suffer from control deficits are most likely to seek to increase them.

11. _____ People who experience more control than they exercise have a “control surplus.”

12. _____ One advantage of Hirschi’s theory is that it explains delinquency, white-collar crime, and political crime equally well.

13. _____ One problem with social control theory is its failure to address the effects of gender.

14. _____ Conservatives are more likely to support Hirschi’s theory than liberals are.

15. _____ Church involvement has a stronger control effect on male juveniles than sports.

Essay Questions

1. Discuss two similarities and two differences between Sutherland’s “differential association” and Aker’s “differential reinforcement.”

Required content:

1. Similarity: both approaches note that deviance and crime are learned behaviors.
2. Similarity: both approaches attempt to be a general theory of crime.

In addition, students must address any two of the following:

1. Sutherland: focus on processes of association.
2. Sutherland: notes that criminals learn both techniques and motives.
3. Sutherland: crime is a result of an excess of pro-crime messages from others.
4. Sutherland: noted the important of social disorganization.
5. Akers: crime is a response to differential reinforcement.
6. Akers: aversive consequences can deter crime.
7. Akers: simply learning motives and techniques is not enough to explain crime. The contents of criminal learning need to be reinforced.
8. Akers: explores links between learning and social structures.

2. Briefly explain and critique the two key concepts of social control theory.

Required content:

1. Crime is likely to occur when the social bonds between individuals and society are weakened or severed.
2. Critique: social organization can profoundly influence the potential for social bonds.
3. Most people have antisocial tendencies. Criminology must explain why they do not act on them.
4. Critique: there is no way to support or refute the antisocial tendencies assumption.

Additional content (any two of the following):

1. Using the tenets of control theory, parents should closely monitor children and punish bad behavior.
2. According to control balance theory, good childrearing practices are more important than poverty, unemployment, and class position as a cause of crime.
3. Social control theory is criticized as overly individualistic.
4. Social control theory restored deviance as an important concept in criminology.
5. Social control theory is testable and generates much research.
6. Some of Hirschi’s recommendations are controversial, e.g., governmental incentives for strict childrearing.

3. Compare and contrast Hirschi’s social control theory with Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory. (Note: Specify how many points the student should address for each theory.)

Required content for social-control theory (any of the following):

1. Weak or severed social bonds between individuals and society leads to crime.
2. Because most people have antisocial tendencies, criminologists should explain why most people do not commit crime.
3. To increase social bonds and thus deter crime, parents should closely monitor children and punish bad behavior.
4. Good childrearing practices are more important than social factors such as poverty or unemployment in causing crime.
5. Due to their suppressive effect on crime, governments should devise techniques to strengthen and increase social bonds.

Required content for self-control theory (any of the following):

1. Crime stems from a lack of self-control.
2. Low self-control combined with opportunity increases the likelihood of crime.
3. The inability to defer gratification is an example of low self-control linked to crime.
4. Crime can be exciting and thrilling.
5. Criminal acts are typically self-centered.

4. Identify and illustrate the six types of deviance conceptualized by Tittle.

Required content:

1. Predation: physical violence, theft, rape, and robbery.
2. Exploitation: price-fixing and unsafe working conditions.
3. Defiance: vandalism and political protests.
4. Plunder: genocide and ethnic cleansing.
5. Decadence: sex with children, public humiliation of others, and sadistic and torturous behavior.
6. Submission: permitting or soliciting abuse of oneself.

Additional content:

1. According to Braithwaite, Tittle needs to better distinguish exploitation, plunder, and decadence.
2. Predatory deviance can be diffused or decreased by exercising control respectfully, without humiliation or debasement.
3. Tittle’s control balance theory tried to combine aspects of many different theories: e.g., differential association, anomie, conflict, social control, left realism, and labeling.

ADDITIONAL SOURCES

Cromwell, Paul. 2009. In Their Own Words: Criminals on Crime (5th ed.) New York: Oxford University Press.

Donnie Brasco (1997): Drama.

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