CHAPTER 5

Childhood and the Transition to Adulthood

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The Barker hypothesis proposes that ________.
   1. low birth weight predisposes the child for negative health outcomes in later life
   2. pre-term birth shortens total life expectancy
   3. parental income and education determine one’s health
   4. childhood social inclusion determines one’s health status
2. Progressive universalism refers to ________.
   1. policies that support the entire population with additional support provided to those with special needs
   2. policies that are inclusive of minorities
   3. the taxation and public programs that are typical of liberal regime countries
   4. the social gradient in health
3. “Programming” in the context of early childhood development refers to ________.
   1. children needing to learn computer technology at an early age
   2. characteristics that are “hard wired” into us by our genome
   3. maternal instincts toward nurturing children
   4. fetal or early childhood events that have life-long implications
4. Critical developmental junctures, such as stages of brain development, are an example of ________.
   1. generalized failure to thrive
   2. cumulative effects
   3. programming effects
   4. pathway effects
5. The following statement regarding early infant growth is FALSE: ________.
   1. Environmental conditions in the womb, including nutrition, oxygen level, and maternal stress hormones influence health over the person’s life course through modifying gene expression
   2. Living conditions shortly after birth influence health over the person’s life course through modifying gene expression
   3. In the womb and shortly after birth, epigenetic markers are laid down and those markers have phenotypic consequences through development
   4. The effects of prenatal and early childhood determinants of cognitive and physiologic function are non-reversible.
6. When we examine relationship between birth weight and the social class of the mother we find that the ________ the income and education of the mother, the greater the probability ________.
   1. lower; of the baby being small for gestational age
   2. lower; that the child will be of normal weight for gestational age
   3. higher; of the baby being small for gestational age
   4. higher; of the baby being too big for gestational age
7. ________ is strongly associated with parental income.
   1. Eye colour
   2. Height
   3. Left handedness
   4. Hair colour
8. Recent research proves that between fetal development and age seven, the brain literally shapes itself, determining which pathways to reinforce, which neurons to sustain, and which neurons to destroy. This process is called ________.
   1. brain construction
   2. neural sculpting
   3. neurological auditioning
   4. brain transformation
9. Research shows that emotionally and intellectually impoverished early years may impair learning and social functioning over an individual’s entire life, regardless of the quality of schooling received from kindergarten to grade 12. This is an example of ________.
   1. a programming effect
   2. a latent effect
   3. a cumulative effect
   4. a pathway effect
10. ________ suggest that the longer we are exposed to negative environmental, social, or dietary factors, or alternatively, the more intense the exposure to those negative factors, the worse the health effects.
    1. Programming effects
    2. Latent effects
    3. Cumulative effects
    4. Pathway effects
11. ________ refers to one set of events setting the stage for subsequent developments.
    1. Programming effect
    2. Latent effect
    3. Cumulative effect
    4. Pathway effect
12. Well-conducted experiments with Rhesus macaques show ________.
    1. fostering by nurturing mothers reduces basal cortisol levels in genetically reactive infants
    2. position within the troop hierarchy affects development of the hippocampus
    3. fetal nutrition is the prime determinant of the adult animal’s cognitive ability
    4. status hierarchies among Rhesus monkeys are a poor model for human health outcomes
13. Poor quality orphanages, such as those operated in Romania a quarter century ago, caused “psychogenic dwarfish.” We now know ________.
    1. none of the effects are reversible
    2. psychogenic dwarfish arises from severe, chronic stress
    3. the main underlying mechanism is underdevelopment of the cerebral cortex
    4. there is no clear link between chronic stress and brain development
14. According to attachment theory, ________.
    1. it is vital that proper emotional attachment happens in infancy
    2. attachment failure contributes to high self-esteem
    3. the most important form of emotional attachment occurs when people find their spouse/partner
    4. attachments can be formed throughout the years and lack of attachment in early years can be easily overcome
15. According to the attachment theory, attachment failure is hypothesized to cause all of the following EXCEPT ________.
    1. low self-esteem
    2. anxiety and hostility
    3. high cognitive function
    4. the inability to form social bonds
16. The activity levels of individual genes and clusters of genes may be affected by ________.
    1. genetic anomalies
    2. chromosomal anomalies
    3. telomere length
    4. DNA methylation
17. The LEAST critical factor determining the health of a newborn is his or her ________.
    1. genetic heritage
    2. mother’s diet
    3. mother’s activity level before and during pregnancy
    4. mother’s smoking, drinking, and drug taking behaviour
18. ________ places last in rates of children who participate in formal playgroups at early childhood development centres.
    1. Denmark
    2. The United States
    3. Australia
    4. Canada
19. “Suicide contagion” involves a spike in numbers of attempted and successful suicides following the death of a schoolmate. This phenomenon is strongest among ________.
    1. 12 and 13 year olds
    2. 14 and 15 year olds
    3. 16 and 17 year olds
    4. 18 and 19 year olds
20. ________ is the leading cause of death for teenagers in Canada.
    1. Cancer
    2. Heart failure
    3. Injuries
    4. Infections

True or False Questions

1. According to attachment theory, the fetus responds to under-nutrition with permanent changes in physiology, metabolism, and structure.
2. Environmental conditions in the womb, including nutrition, oxygen level, and maternal stress hormones, as well as living conditions shortly after birth, influence health over the person’s life course through modifying gene expression.
3. The incidence of low birth weight shows a distinct social and economic gradient.
4. Cumulative effects refer to early life experiences and context that affect people independently of what happens in their later years.
5. The risk of negative outcomes is lower for low-birth-weight children raised in poorer families than it is for children raised in more affluent ones
6. The extent of DNA methylation in ado­lescents varies with the stress levels in their homes when they were infants and young children.
7. Young people are more likely than older Canadians to be involved in a motor vehicle accident.
8. Studies have shown that northern European children typically have a worse relationship with their parents than North American ones.
9. Canada is a world leader in ensuring every child develops to his or her potential.
10. Canada spends relatively little on public education (kindergarten to grade 12).

Short Answer Questions

1. What is a critical developmental juncture? Provide an example.
2. What is the programming hypothesis regarding early childhood development? Provide an example.
3. What are the differences among latent, cumulative, and pathway effects?
4. Some people suggest that early childhood programs should target only high-risk families. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Why?
5. What is the relationship between social class and early childhood development?

Essay Questions

1. Discuss health related issues that are relevant to teenagers’ development.
2. Why is early childhood development considered to be one of the most important social determinants of health?
3. Canada is a world leader in research relating to child development yet provides among the least support for early childhood of any affluent country. Why might that be so? Why have repeated efforts at broadening access to and increasing the quality of child care proven to be so difficult in Canada?