Chapter 1: The Rise and Fall of Delinquency

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Which of the following is MOST significant to those who study “the politics of youth crime”?

a. parliamentary discussions surrounding youth crime and justice reform

b. political parties’ positions on young offenders and juvenile justice

c. public concerns about the effectiveness of the youth justice system

d. the amount of coverage devoted to youth crime in the media and public discourse

2. What did the “law-and-order” proponents of the 1995 Reform of the YOA argue?

a. that the YOA was effectively controlling youth crime

b. that economic, social, and political realities required examination

c. that both youth and the YOA were problems

d. that offending youth should not be identified

3. Which of the following statements is a law-and-order proponent most likely to support?

1. Government policies need to address poverty and youth unemployment.
2. The problems experienced by youth are more concerning than youth crime.
3. Adults need protection from youth who are accused of committing crimes.
4. Rehabilitation is best achieved by keeping youth out of institutions.

4. The “Nunn Commission” was a public inquiry held as result of which case?

1. Kristen French
2. Reena Virk
3. Theresa McEvoy
4. Stefanie Rengel

5. According to the text, what do crime statistics as far back as 1885 indicate about youth involvement in criminal activity?

a. They were never involved in criminal activity until after World War II.

b. They have always been involved in criminal activity; including serious violent crimes.

c. They were never involved in criminal activity to the same extent as adults until after the YOA was implemented.

d. They have always been involved in criminal activity, but did not become involved in violent crime until after the YOA was implemented.

6. How was youth crime viewed in the Victorian era?

a. an issue of morality

b. a problem caused by immigration

c. a result of children and youths’ marginalized status in society

d. caused by the freedom and independence of young people in the New World

7. Which of the following statements is true regarding the institutionalized youth population of the 19th century compared to today?

• 1. A higher percentage of imprisoned youth were boys.
  2. A higher percentage of imprisoned youth were girls.
  3. A lower percentage of imprisoned youth were girls.
  4. A similar percentage of imprisoned youth were boys.

8. Which were the first two youth specific institutions built in Canada after the passage of the 1857 Act for Establishing Prisons for Young Offenders?

1. Kingston Penitentiary and the Millhaven Institution
2. Grand Valley Institution and the Upper Canada Institution
3. Maplehurst Institution and the Archambault Institution
4. Penetanguishene and Isle-aux-Noix

9. Which term refers to a belief that the right treatment can change a person’s attitudes, values, and/or behaviour?

1. reformatory philosophy
2. rehabilitative philosophy
3. punitive philosophy
4. penal philosophy

10. During the 19th century, at what age were children exempt from the law because it was believed they were “unable to distinguish right from wrong”?

a. 7

b. 12

c. 13

d. 14

11. Which of the following most accurately describes how youth crime has changed over the last 200 years in Canada?

a. Nothing has changed.

b. There are higher numbers of youth involved in crime today than in the past.

c. The public’s perceptions, definitions and responses to youth crime have changed.

d. Gang delinquency has become more prevalent in many urban areas of Canada.

12. According to the text, which of the following is the best explanation for the increase in youth crime reported in Canada over time?

a. rapid decreases in overall population

b. the creation of the juvenile justice system

c. decreases in crime prevention activities, such as policing

d. changes in delinquent and criminal behaviour among the youth population

13. According to the text, which of the following statements best describes how youth crime is studied using a sociological perspective?

a. an examination of criminal behaviour, crime trends, and statistics

b. an examination of the individual’s history, family, school, and neighbourhood

c. an examination of structural, demographic, and political factors

d. an examination of the criminal justice system

14. Which term refers to the creation of criminal justice policy based on public sentiment as it is perceived in the media, rather than on actual criminal activity or the effectiveness of policy?

1. penal populism
2. media frenzy
3. moral panic legislation
4. problematized legislation

SHORT ANSWER

1. Define “primary data” and “secondary data” and give an example of each.

• Primary data—research information gathered directly from the original source.–––– Example: prison records
• Secondary data—research information or data that was originally collected for another purpose.

– Example: academic analyses of a historian’s work

REF: 10-11

1. Outline the three myths about youth crime outlined by Bernard (1992) and give a brief explanation for each. Give an example of a news story that perpetuates one of these myths.

• “Myth that nothing changes”: the belief that most people always seem to think pessimistically about youth crime, that youth crime is worse than it actually is, and that there is a youth “crime wave.
• “Myth of the good old days”: —the belief that crime is worse today than ever before and youth no longer respect authority
• “Myth of progress”: youth is not as bad now as it was in the past

REF: 23-26

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Summarize the two opposing sides that emerged out of the liberal federal government’s 1995 YOA Strategy for Reform public consultations. Which side of the debate do you support? Be sure to discuss your reasoning.

Youth Advocates

• Youth crime had been exaggerated and misrepresented in most public accounts, especially by the media.
• Department of Justice Statistics showed that crime in Nova Scotia had dropped in all categories since 1986 and that recent increases in violent crime had “flattened out.”
• Statistics also indicated that youth were being treated more harshly under the YOA than under the JDA.
• Except for the offences of murder and manslaughter, youth were treated at least as harshly as adults who had committed the same offence.
• Youth advocates were primarily concern with problems experienced by youth and preferred policies focused on poverty and high youth unemployment rather than punitive justice reforms.

Law-and-Order Advocates

• Children and youth accused of crimes were viewed as an enemy from whom adults needed protection.
• Youth were viewed as “out of control.”
• Both youth and the YOA were the problem. Youth lacked respect for anyone or anything, lacked a sense of responsibility for criminal behaviour, and increasingly were involved in violent criminal behaviour. The YOA was also a problem because youth could not be identified, youth were not punished for their crimes, youth had more rights than their victims, and youth were too protected by the YOA.
• A Statistics Canada release reported an 8 percent increase in youth involvement in violent crime, and law-and-order advocates used incidences of particularly violent youth crime to support their view. These stories usually portrayed the young offender as remorseless and lacking feeling.
• Advocated a “get-tough” approach to young offenders.

REF: 6-8

2. Compare and contrast the “causes” and solutions to youth crime during the Colonial era (17th and 18th centuries) and the Victorian era (mid-1800s to the turn of the 20th century).

Colonial era

• “Causes”

– Overindulgent parents: parents who provide their children with whatever they want and who do not discipline their children, which prevents these children from forming their character

• The fur trade: merchants and military officers saw business opportunities for their sons in the fur trade. The fur trade was “rife with fraud, immorality, theft, assault, and murder” (Carrigan, 1991, p. 204) and many carried these bad habits back to their homes once they left the fur trade.
• The promotion of European immigration to the New World: impoverished Europeans were lured to the New World with promises of a prosperous life, but once there, many found only unemployment, sickness, destitution, or death. Many children found themselves without parents due to their parents dying or through abandonment.
• Solutions: more schools, more priests, confinement to settled parts of the colony, fines and punishments for parents of offenders, military justice, and an increase in garrison troops (police)

Victorian era

• “Causes”

– Improper parenting—neglectful or immoral parents. Poor working-class parents were viewed as inadequate or as bad role models for their children.

• Solutions

– Rehabilitating individuals—it made no sense to return “evil with evil” by imprisoning and punishing criminal offenders. It is more effective in the long run to return “evil with good” by trying to rehabilitate individuals.

REF: 11-17

Chapter 2: Creating a Juvenile Justice System: Then and Now

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Which of the following represents the correct order of legislation introduced to deal with young offenders in Canada in chronological order?

1. Juvenile Delinquents Act, Young Offenders Act, Youth Criminal Justice Act
2. Juvenile Delinquents Act, Youth Criminal Justice Act, Young Offenders Act
3. Youth Criminal Justice Act, Young Offenders Act, Juvenile Delinquents Act
4. Young Offenders Act ,Youth Criminal Justice Act, Juvenile Delinquents Act

2. According to the text, what was of central concern to the Victorian reformers in the creation of a juvenile justice system?

a. the rise in criminal behaviour of children and youth

b. the desire to save children from harmful family influences

c. the protection of middle-class Victorians from the poor, working class

d. the conflicts between the emerging capitalist system and traditional family supports

3. Who was the lawyer and president of the Ottawa Children’s Aid Society who drafted the Juvenile Delinquents Act?

1. J.J. Kelso
2. W.L. Scott
3. Arthur Lancaster
4. Bernard Schissel

4. Which of the following models of juvenile justice best summarizes the principles of the JDA?

a. justice

b. welfare

c. restorative

d. crime control

5. Under the JDA, how were youth who were charged with an offence to be treated?

a. as criminals

b. the same as adult offenders

c. as citizens under the law

d. as misdirected and misguided children

6. What does the “parens patriae” philosophy of the Juvenile Delinquency Act translate to mean?

1. keeper of the peace
2. role model
3. parenting by probation officers
4. parent of the country

7. In opposition of the JDA, what new principle was introduced by the YOA?

a. youth responsibility

b. protection of the child

c. individual rehabilitation

d. parental responsibility

8. Which of the following is one of the new concepts introduced to the youth justice system by the YCJA?

a. reintegration

b. special needs

c. rehabilitation

d. limited accountability

9. Which of the following justice model principles did the YOA shift toward after subsequent amendments to the legislation?

a. justice model

b. restorative model

c. crime control model

d. modified-justice model

10. According to the YCJA, what is the sole purpose of the youth justice system?

a. rehabilitation

b. restorative justice

c. protection of the public

d. meaningful consequences

11. In 2006, why did the Supreme Court of Canada rule that deterrence, general or specific, could not be used as a justification for sentencing youth?

1. It is not a stated principle of sentencing anywhere in the YCJA.
2. It is not a stated principle of sentencing anywhere in the YOA.
3. It is not a stated principle of sentencing in the Criminal Code of Canada.
4. Children have limited accountability so deterrence will not have an effect.

12. Which of the following amendments was contained in Bill C-10, entitled the Safe Streets and Communities Act?

1. It made rehabilitation a primary goal of the act through changes to the YCJA principles.
2. It requires police to destroy records of when extrajudicial measures are used so that the courts cannot use this information during a case.
3. It requires courts to ensure the names of young offenders are not published.
4. It requires all young offenders under 18, even those sentenced as adults, to serve their sentences in youth facilities.

13. Canadians’ perception of children has changed over the last several centuries. During the colonial era to the 19th century, how were children viewed?

1. possessions and subject to parental authority
2. subjects with rights of their own
3. vulnerable and in need of state protection
4. no longer property of parents but individuals in their own right

14. What two features of the YCJA place Canada in violation of Articles 16 and 37 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child?

a. reparation and reintegration

b. deterrence and denunciation

c. adult sentences and release of information

d. pretrial detention and extrajudicial measures

15. Which of the following terms is used to describe the continual process of law reform common in Western society that has resulted in more punitive reactions to youth crime?

a. parens patriae

b. denunciation

c. bifurcated system

d. cycle of juvenile justice

SHORT ANSWER

1. Define “probation”’ and outline why W.L. Scott saw probation officers as playing such a key role under the JDA.

Probation—a sentence of the court that involves supervision in the community and sets conditions that must be adhered to if the person is to remain in the community.

Important role of probation officers

• Could conduct investigations for the court, and could represent the interests of the child in court
• Were responsible for supervising children sentenced to probation
• Reform the child and “the whole family” through working with the child in the home, school, and workplace

REF: pg. 39-40

1. Summarize the three distinct stages in Canadians’ perceptions of children.

First stage (colonial era to 19th century)

• Children viewed as possessions and subject to parental authority
• Children entitled to the necessities of life but only by default as parents were required by common law to provide for their children

Second stage (Confederation to early 1900s)

• Children viewed as individuals in their own right who were vulnerable and required state protection (parens patriae)
• Still viewed as objects in need of care, rather than as individuals with a right to care and protection

Third stage (mid-20th century)

• Children viewed as subjects with entitlements and rights of their own
• Children under the age of 19 are entitled to special protections and the best interests of the child are paramount with regard to protection and rights

REF: 60-62

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Compare and contrast the four different models of juvenile justice in terms of their focus, philosophy and view of crime/ delinquency. Which model of juvenile justice do you think is the most effective at reducing crime and why?

Welfare model

• Focus: on the individual offender’s needs
• Philosophy: best interest of the child and family (parens patriae)
• View of crime/delinquency: determined by social, psychological, and environmental factors

Justice model

• Focus: individual rights
• Philosophy: minimal interference with freedoms, right to due process
• View of crime/delinquency: free will, individual responsibility

Crime control model

• Focus: protection of society
• Philosophy: law and order in society are paramount; state responsibility for maintaining order
• View of crime/delinquency: responsibility, accountability, determinate

Restorative model

• Focus: harm caused by crime, repair harm done to victims, reduce future harm by crime prevention
• Philosophy: peacemaking, reparation of past harms, reconciliation between victims, offenders, and communities
• View of crime/delinquency: a violation of people and relationships

REF: 37-38

1. Briefly explain the seven main principles of juvenile justice introduced by the Young Offenders Act.

Accountability

• Young people who commit criminal offences have to assume responsibility for their behaviour.
• Children and youth are held accountable by the justice system, but in limited manner compared to adults.

Protection of society

• This guiding principle of juvenile justice was further entrenched when a 1995 amendment stated that it is a primary objective of criminal law.

Special needs

• Young people have “special needs” because of their immaturity and dependency relative to adults.
• These social and psychological needs of a child are: a safe and secure home environment, parents or guardians who are willing and able to provide for the child’s psychological and physiological needs.

Alternative measures

• Expresses the principle of diversion: where the protection of society is not compromised, measures other than formal court processing should be considered.

Rights of young persons

• In addition to the rights and freedoms guaranteed under the Canadian Charter of rights and Freedoms and the Canadian Bill of Rights, young people have the right to legal representation and the right to be informed as to their rights and freedoms under the act.
• Rules governing statements made to “persons in authority” including police officers, teachers and principals but parents were not usually considered “persons in authority.”

Minimal interference with freedom

• The principle of “least possible interference” encouraged the use of alternative measures/ diversion and it encouraged police officers to divert youth from the system altogether.

Parental responsibility

• Addressed parental involvement with youth and justice proceedings.
• Parents or guardians were required to be notified of their child’s arrest and of youth court proceedings, and they could be ordered to attend court.
• If parents were not considered “responsible” the court could remove children from their parents’ guardianship.

REF: 44-48

Chapter 3: The “Facts” of Youth Crime

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Which of the following is the best measure of “detected crime”?

1. police statistics
2. court statistics
3. victimization surveys
4. self-report surveys

2. According to the text, it has been argued that news stories and articles that report “crime waves” are more accurately described as which of the following?

1. cycles of juvenile justice
2. media waves
3. unfounded stories
4. self-fulfilling prophecies

3. In 2008, the highest percentage of apprehended youth were charged with which of the following crimes?

a. robbery

b. assault level I

c. assault level III

d. theft under $1,000

4. In the 1960s, which of the following was established to standardize police data in Canada?

1. police reporting
2. Uniform Crime Reporting
3. crime severity index
4. the Young Offenders Act

5. Which of the follow terms assigns a weight to each offence based on the seriousness of the average sentence for that offence and the proportion of prison sentences?

1. crime index
2. official statistics
3. types of offences
4. crime severity index

6. According to the text, what do police statistics tell us about youth crime?

a. Youth are responsible for less violent crime than are adults.

b. Most youth crime can be accounted for by motor vehicle theft.

c. Youth charge rates have increased since the YCJA was implemented.

d. Youth are responsible for considerably more violent crime than are adults.

7. According to the text, what do youth court statistics best measure?

a. youth justice

b. victimization

c. police activity

d. youth criminal activity

8. According to victimization surveys, which of the following characteristics is the most difficult for victims to recall?

1. gender
2. age
3. race
4. hair colour

9. According to the text, what do youth crime statistics tell us about gender and violent crime?

a. Girls are less likely to use knives than boys.

b. Girls participate in more group fights in public spaces than boys.

c. Girls are charged for violent offences at younger ages than boys.

d. Boys are less likely to be charged with common assault than girls.

10. According to the text, which of the following statements is true regarding homicides committed by youth?

1. Females are responsible for committing more homicides than males.
2. The most common victims are parents, family, and acquaintances.
3. Youth homicides rates in Canada are similar to the United States.
4. Youth homicides usually involve multiple offenders and one victim.

11. According to evidence provided by Carrington in the “violent crime debate,” which of the following can best account for the increases in youth crime since the YOA was implemented?

a. telescoping

b. self-fulfilling prophecy

c. increased police reporting

d. increased incidences of homicide

12. According to the text, what methodological issue below most concerns researchers about victimization surveys?

a. reliability

b. telescoping

c. unfounded offences

d. self-fulfilling prophecy

13. According to police statistics cited in the text, how does adult crime compare to youth crime?

a. Youth account for more than half of all charges in property crime.

b. Youth account for fewer criminal code offence charges than adults.

c. Youth are responsible for more motor vehicle theft and mischief charges than adults.

d. The ratio of youth to adult crime has increased with the implementation of the YCJA.

SHORT ANSWER

1. Using Table 3.3A found on pages 78–79, apply your knowledge about crime statistics by interpreting the information this table provides on violent crime from 1986–1996.

• Overall the number of youth charged with violent crimes increased from 9,275 in 1986 to 22,521 in 1996.
• Overall the youth violent crime rate increased from 408 per 100,000 youth in 1986 to 932 per 100,000 youth in 1996.
• The greatest percentage change in the violent crime rate took place from 1998-1989 (an increase of 20.7 percent) followed by 1990–1991 (an increase of 19.3 percent).
• The rate of violent crime increased every year during this time period except from 1993–1994 and 1995–1996.

REF: 76-79

1. Explain how the use of police discretion can affect police statistics as well as court statistics.

• If police choose not to lay a charge or use a diversionary measure, this occurrence will not show up in statistics regarding youth charged with criminal offences nor will it show up in court statistics.
• Police have more discretion to lay charges with minor offences (vandalism, mischief, etc.) than they do with serious offences (robbery, break and enter, murder) so it is important to consider the type of offence. Serious offences are less likely to be impacted by police discretion and therefore are more likely to show up in court statistics.
• Individual police officers may exercise different levels of discretion, which means that some officers may be more likely to lay charges and have the case end up in court.
• Different police departments may exercise different levels of discretion, which means that certain police departments may be more likely to lay charges and have the case end up in court.
• A self-fulfilling prophecy may be operating with regard to official statistics so that the police and courts may respond more severely to minority and poor youth compared to middle-class and non-minority youth.

REF: 76-86, 108-109

1. Summarize three of the possible disadvantages when using victimization surveys to study youth crime.

Disadvantages

• Does not measure common offences such as shoplifting or other crimes committed against businesses or corporations.
• Does not measure victimless crimes such as drug offences or crimes against people who are not aware they have been victimized.
• Victim may not be able to identify the offender’s age, especially if the offender is not known to the victim, so it may be difficult to determine whether the offender is a youth or adult.
• Victim reports may be influenced by popular stereotypes of criminals.
• People may not be truthful when filling out victimization surveys.
• Telescoping: victims report an event correctly but place it in the wrong time period.

REF: 88-90, 105-108

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. When examining a debate on a topic it is important to consider both sides. Using the table below, outline and interpret (a) which statistics a person who believes crime is increasing from 1990–2000 would use to support his or her view, and (b) which statistics a person who believes crime is decreasing from 1990–2000 would use to support his or her view. Further, (c) explain three important factors to consider when examining youth crime statistics.

1. Support for person who believes crime is increasing

• The number of violent crime offences double from 4,000 to 8,000.
• The number of property offences increased by a factor of five, from 6,000 to 30,000.
• The rate of property crime increased from 600 to 1,000 per 100,000 population, representing a 66.7 percent increase.
• The number of offences for overall crime increased by a factor of 3.8.
• The overall crime rate increased from 1,000 to 1,267 per 100,000 population but this does not take into account that this change was driven by an increase in the rate of property crime and that there was a decrease in the violent crime rate.

1. Support for person who believes crime is decreasing

• The rate of violent crime decreased from 400 to 267 per 100,000 youth. This represents a decrease of 33.25 percent. Rates are a better measure of crime because they take into account changes in population size.

1. Important factors to consider:

• What is the source of information: self-report survey, victimization survey, police statistics, court records, correctional agencies?
• Is the crime statistic presenting information on overall crime, violent crime, property crime, or crime by specific types of offence?
• Is the crime statistic presenting information using counts (number of offences) or crime rates (factors in population size)?
• What year(s) is the crime statistic from?
• What geographic area does the crime statistic cover: the entire country, provinces, cities, etc.?

REF: 73-115

1. Choose a recent news story, journal article, government publication/report, or other source that discusses the topic of youth crime in Canada. First, provide a summary of what is being discussed. Second, identify the crime statistics that are being used and interpret their meaning. Third, identify which source(s) of information the article relies on when discussing youth crime.

Summary of article

• Be sure to provide a summary that discusses the main points being addressed and the conclusions being drawn by the article.

Crime statistics used in article

• Are the crime statistics based on the number of offences, crime rates, etc.?
• Do the crime statistics reflect only one year or multiple years?
• Do the crime statistics show increases, decreases, or no change in crime?

Sources of information

• Does the article use media accounts, police statistics, court statistics, self-report surveys, victimization surveys, or personal accounts?

REF: 73-90

Chapter 4: The Social Face of Youth Crime

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. According to the text, besides self-report surveys, what other two methodological developments have further altered the face of youth crime for criminologists?

1. victimization surveys and ethnographic studies
2. ethnographic studies and longitudinal studies
3. correctional statistics and police statistics
4. police statistics and longitudinal studies

2. Why do federal statistics NOT provide public information on race and crime?

1. No police departments in Canada collect information on race or ethnicity.
2. Human-rights organizations have objected to the collection of justice statistics by race.
3. Information on race is not useful for researchers when developing justice policy.
4. It is not necessary to monitor court compliance with considering the “needs of Aboriginal young persons.”

3. Which of the following statements is supported by the gang research discussed in the text?

a. Youth gangs are not long-lived.

b. Aboriginal youth gangs are on the rise.

c. “Asian” youth gangs are primarily involved in drug activities.

d. Most youth gangs are made up of one particular ethnic group.

4. According to research highlighted in the text, which statement summarizes Aboriginal youths’ involvement with the justice system in Canada?

a. Aboriginal youth are more likely to be remanded.

b. Aboriginal youth receive more community-based supervision.

c. Aboriginal youth become involved with the justice system in late adolescence.

d. Aboriginal youth are less likely to be identified as offenders by police.

5. According to discussions in the text, which of the following characterizes youth under the age of 12 who are involved with the justice system in Canada?

a. They are responsible for 15 percent of all youth crime.

b. They usually share charges with an older accomplice.

c. They are most often involved in petty property offences.

d. They participate in more criminal activity than in the past.

6. According to police statistics, what charge is most common for both boys and girls?

a. theft

b. mischief

c. minor assault

d. bail violations

7. According to self-report studies, how do girls’ and boys’ criminal behaviour compare?

a. Girls are just as involved in property crime and aggressive behaviour as boys.

b. Boys are just as likely to run away or become involved in prostitution as girls.

c. Girls’ delinquent careers are longer than boys because they start at earlier ages.

d. Boys and girls are involved in different types of behaviours with the same frequency.

8. Which of the following is the best example of the “cycle of violence”?

1. Alex observes her parents in a physical fight and a year later Alex is caught stealing from a store and is charged with theft.
2. Alex’s parents collect welfare, and when Alex grows up and moves out she ends up collecting welfare.
3. Alex observes her father steal from a store and a year later Alex is caught stealing from a store and is charged with theft.
4. Alex observes her parents in a physical fight and a year later Alex gets into a fight at school and is charged with assault.

9. Which of the following statements is supported by youth victimization surveys?

a. Children are far more likely to be victimized than adults.

b. Boys are more likely to be sexually assaulted than girls.

c. The risk of victimization is highest for anyone 24 or older.

d. Girls are more likely to be killed or physically assaulted than boys.

10. According to the text, which term refers to children who have experienced a number of victimizations and who exhibit traumatic symptomology?

1. concentrated victimization
2. cycle of violence
3. polyvictimization
4. racialized victimization

11. According to Statistics Canada data from 1991–1994, which age group has the highest rate of homicide victimization?

1. those under 1 year
2. those 1 year to 11 years
3. those 12 years to 19 years
4. those 20 years and over

12. According to the RCMP Missing Children’s Registry, what is the most common status for the majority of outstanding missing children’s cases?

a. runaway

b. kidnapping

c. parental abduction

d. stranger abduction

13. The federal government set up a Cybertip.ca website for people to report online materials involving child sexual exploitation. What did the majority of reported cases involve?

1. sexual interference
2. child luring
3. child pornography
4. child prostitution

14. According to victimization surveys, where do the majority of sexual assaults of adolescents and children occur?

a. at school

b. at home

c. in a public place

d. in a vehicle

SHORT ANSWER

1. In Canada, should race be reported in justice statistics? Be sure to justify your answer.

No, race should not be reported

• Data cannot be exploited by white supremacists or other racist groups.
• Human-rights organizations have objected to the collection of this.
• Making data publicly available means that all data should be available.

Yes, race should be reported

• Potentially useful information is not available for researchers or for the development of justice policy.
• Court compliance can be monitored to ensure the “needs of Aboriginal young persons” is being considered.

REF: 121

1. What are some of the possible explanations for victimization surveys showing that female crime rates are lower compared to males?

• Men may be too embarrassed to report having been victimized by a woman.
• Similar acts may be interpreted differently depending on whether they are committed by a male or female.
• Police have a considerable amount of discretion, and police and prosecutors are more inclined to charge and prosecute girls under 16 than they are older girls.
• Boys are more likely to begin their delinquent careers at an earlier age, and boys are more likely to extend their careers into their adult lives.
• Girls’ delinquent careers are not only shorter than are boys’ but also involve less serious offences.

REF: 137-138

1. Why are estimates of children and youth victimization by family members, friends, and acquaintances likely to be underestimates?

• The younger the victim, the less likely the offence is to be reported to police.
• Children are more likely to report offences to other officials (adults other than police).
• Complaints from children and youth may be less likely to be taken seriously than complaints by adults.

REF: 145

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Outline how the media contributes to the racialization of youth gangs. How does this compare to findings from gang research?

Media contributions to the racialization of youth gangs

• In the early 1990s, the Canadian media identified four groups of youth as problematic: Asian, Vietnamese, Latin, and Black.
• The race of minority youth who participate in gangs is usually reported but Caucasian youth gang activities are never linked to the race of the perpetrators.
• The terms used in the media are broad, generic identifiers such as “Asian,” which serve to brand all visible-minority individuals who are perceived to fit the category.
• Gang articles often racialize youth through content and visuals, and they are often “highly condemnatory and fear inducing” and they mask very real issues of “poverty dispossession, social inequality, judicial unfairness, and social isolation” (Schissel, 2006, p. 91).

Findings from gang research

• Youth gangs and street gangs are usually multi-ethnic; Gordon’s (1993, 1995) research on gang members in jails in British Columbia found that 68 percent of gang members serving prison sentences were Canadian-born.
• Youth gangs are not long-lived- Gang research conducted by Joe and Robinson (1980) found that none of the gangs that existed in Vancouver’s Chinatown in 1975 were still active by 1979.
• Defining the children of immigrants as particularly troublesome is not a new phenomenon as in the 1920s and 1930s, Winnipeg’s youth crime problems were blamed on immigration.
• It is important to not overlook skinheads, a white youth gangs. They are normally regarded as a hate group or “political terrorists” but they nonetheless engage in criminal activity related to crimes of hate and violence.

REF: 122-124

1. Until recently, most public attention has been focused on young people as offenders. Discuss what has been learned and the important findings by examining youth as victims of violence and the relationship between victimization as a child and later criminality.

• Research has shown that there is a cycle of violence; data from the United States shows that victims of childhood abuse and neglect are more likely to be charged with criminal offences than other youth and their offences are more likely to be violent in nature.
• Canada does not conduct child victimization surveys, but surveys from the United States report that children are far more likely to be victimized than adults.
• Canadian figures on child and youth victimization from police statistics and the General Social Survey, which have remained fairly consistent from 2004–2008, show that youth and young adults are victimized more than any other age group. Six of ten sexual assaults reported to police involved a child or youth under 18 years. Physical assaults account for three-quarters of violent offences against children and youth.
• Some of this higher rate of victimization is attributable to lifestyle, as rates of victimization are higher for students and those who spend time away from home in the evenings.
• Among child victims of homicide during the 1974–2004 time period, the age group with the highest rate of victimization was infants under 1 year of age (Dauvergne, 2005, p. 11).
• The risk of victimization is not “random”; rather, age and sex determine to a great extent who will be victimized and how (Johnson and Lazarus, 1989).
• For the last 10 years, police statistics report that two-thirds of physical assaults against children under 6 years of age are committed by parents, and mothers are more likely to physically assault daughters and fathers to assault sons. Girls are more likely to be physically assaulted by family members, and boys by someone outside the family, most often peers (Ogrodnik, 2010).
• While a great deal of attention has been paid to “stranger danger,” according to the RCMP Missing Children’s Registry, in 2003, only a very small number of reported cases involved child abductions, and nearly 80 percent of cases involved “runaway” children.
• Public information campaigns designed to educate parents about “streetproofing” children can create the impression that children are more likely to be victimized by strangers when in reality studies in Canada and the United States indicate that youth are more likely than adults to be victimized by family members, friends, or acquaintances.
• Canadian data on crimes known to police show that two-thirds of sexual assaults occurred in homes.
• Living on the streets puts young people at great risk of physical and sexual victimization.

REF: 140-150

Chapter 5: Explaining Crime and Delinquency: In the Beginning …

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Which of the following is NOT one of the three conditions of causality?
2. establish a time priority
3. establish that a relationship is non-spurious
4. establish that there is relationship between concepts
5. establish an experiment to be conducted

2. Which of the following is a central tenet of the classical school of criminology as it pertains to human behaviour?

a. free will

b. psychology

c. social factors

d. the environment

3. How are theories of crime such as “the born criminal” and “types of people” classified?

a. sociological

b. psychological

c. positivist

d. classical

4. According to Sheldon’s work, Varieties of Delinquent Youth (1949), which body type is linked to delinquent behaviour?

1. mesomorph
2. ectomorph
3. endomorph
4. retromorph

5. What do most modern biological theorists argue about biology and criminal behaviour?

a. Criminality is genetically inherited.

b. Criminality is caused by feeblemindedness.

c. Criminality is a product of environmental factors.

d. Criminality is the result of social and biological interactions.

6. Which of the following would be included among the psychological positivism theories?

a. anomie

b. strain theory

c. social learning theory

d. social disorganization

7. Which of the following psychological positivist theories lends itself to the law-and-order approach to juvenile justice?

a. behaviouralism

b. antisocial personality

c. moral development

d. psychoanalytic

8. Which theory argues that rates of delinquency are always higher in the area surrounding the centre of the city?

1. differential opportunity
2. containment theory
3. drift and delinquency
4. social disorganization

9. A person pulled over for speeding tells the officer, “I see the police speeding all the time without their lights on, so giving me a ticket would be hypocritical.” What technique of neutralization is this?

1. denial of injury
2. denial of responsibility
3. condemnation of the condemners
4. appeal to higher loyalties

10. Which of the following theories begins with the assumption that unless people are constrained in some way, they will behave on the basis of self-interest?

a. control theory

b. consensus theory

c. drift and delinquency theory

d. differential association theory

11. Which of the following was NOT one of the components conceptualized as part of the social bond according to Travis Hirschi’s (1969) Social Bond Theory?

1. communication
2. attachments
3. commitment
4. involvement

12. According to Hirschi (1969), what must be present in a young person’s life to prevent him or her from engaging in delinquent behaviour?

a. self-control

b. social bond

c. social consensus

d. social control

SHORT ANSWER

1. Summarize the three conditions that must be met before causality can be established.

• First, it has to be established that there is a relationship between concepts both within and among the propositions that constitute a theory.
• Second, a time priority has to be established between the concepts so that the cause comes before the effect.
• Third, “spuriousness” has to be ruled out so that we can be certain that there is no other causal factor related to both concepts being examined.

REF: 156-157

1. Summarize the four elements of the social bond outlined by Hirschi (1969) and give an example of each.

• Attachments: young people with attachments to parents, schools, and other agents of socialization are less likely than those without such attachments to become delinquents

– Example: A person who is has a close and open relationship with his parents

• Commitment: refers to successes, achievements, and ambitions and the extent to which one has invested in these things

– Example: A straight-A student in her last year of high school before going to university decides not to vandalize the school when her friends ask her to.

• Involvement: refers to activity and the extent to which young people are engaged in productive activities

– Example: A person has little time to commit delinquent behaviour because he plays hockey, golf, is involved with Scouts, and helps his grandparents out two nights a week.

• Beliefs: a person who is committed to or believes in a conventional value system will be constrained from getting involved in delinquent behaviour

– Example: A person raised in a family with a strong sense of morals who believes that for a society to function everyone needs to follow the law.

REF: 175

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between consensus theory and control theory? Compare one consensus theory and one control theory to demonstrate how they differ.
2. Consensus theory refers to a group of theories based on a fundamental assumption that people are essentially law-abiding. Therefore, compliance is assumed to be the natural state of affairs so theories need to explain why some people are involved in criminal or delinquent behaviour.

b. Control theory refers to a group of theories premised on an assumption that people will operate on the basis of self-interest unless constrained. Therefore, acting in self-interest, which leads to delinquent and criminal behaviour, is assumed to be the natural state of affairs so what needs to be explained is why most people are not involved in delinquent or criminal behaviour.

Example of a consensus theory: Merton’s “modes of adaption” or anomie theory

• All people in North American society are socialized to aspire to the same culturally mandated goals: a good job, marriage, home ownership, children, etc.
• However, legitimate means for achieving these goals are limited by social structure, such as the educational system. Postsecondary education is difficult to access for those who don’t have the money to pay tuition and other costs associated with school.
• Contradictions or discrepancies between cultural goals and structural means—anomie—are created and reinforced by a class system of reward distribution.
• The anomic conditions create “strain” or pressures to find other means to success, some of which may be illegal.
• Modes of adaption: (1) Conformity—accept the cultural goals and institutionalized means of goal achievement; (2) Innovation—accept cultural goals but reject institutionalized means of goal achievement, which can lead to white-collar crime or theft; (3) Ritualism—reject cultural goals but accept the means of goal achievement (4) Retreatism—reject both institutionalized means and cultural goals, which can lead to drug addiction, alcoholism, or life on the street; and (5) Rebellion—reject institutionalized means and cultural goals and implement their own means and/or goal achievement.

Example of a control theory: containment theory, developed by Walter Reckless (1953)

• Used to explain why some boys in high-crime neighbourhoods get into trouble while others do not.
• Four factors influence delinquent behaviour: outer pulls, inner pushes, external containment factors, and internal containment factors

– “Outer pulls”: environmental factors pulling people into delinquency such as poverty and unemployment

– “Inner pushes”: psychological or biological factors, such as psychosis or hostility, pushing people into delinquency

– External containment factors: outer controls, such as community ties, that protect young people from delinquent behaviour

– Internal containment factors: the most important of these is a positive self-concept. A pro-social self-concept is the best defence against delinquent temptations

REF: 168-175

1. Summarize the five techniques of neutralization according to Sykes and Matza (1957). Provide an example of each technique of neutralization.
2. Denial of responsibility

• Occurs when young people refuse to accept any responsibility for their behaviour and blame others instead.

– Example: That isn’t me on the video stealing the chocolate bar; that must be someone else.

1. Denial of injury

• Occurs when a youth insists that no one was hurt in any way.

– Example: That store makes millions of dollar each year so they won’t notice or care about the pack of candy I took.

1. Denial of victim

• Occurs when a young person argues that the victimization was deserved in some way

– Example: That guy is a bully, so he deserved it when I threw that rock at him and put him in his place.

1. Condemnation of the condemners

• Refers to the argument that those in authority, who could be police, parents, or teachers, are hypocrites.

– Example: A person pulled over for speeding tells the officer “I see the police speeding all the time without their lights on, so giving me a ticket would be hypocritical.”

1. Appeal to higher loyalties

• Occurs when a young person argues that his or her motivations were essentially honourable.

– Example: I didn’t want to cheat on the test, but my parents put so much pressure on me to do well in school, so that I can go to university and get a good job that I had to do it so I wouldn’t let them down.

REF: 174

Chapter 6: Different Directions in Theorizing About Youth Crime and Delinquency

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Which of the following terms refers to all of the behaviour that a person develops as a result of societal responses to his or her initial deviance?

1. the criminal event
2. a criminal career
3. primary deviance
4. secondary deviance

2. Which theory of crime supported the principle of the “least possible interference” that lead to decarceration policies in the 1970s?

a. labelling theory

b. feminist theory

c. routine activity theory

d. lifecourse development theory

3. According to routine activity theory, what three components are required for a young person to commit a crime?

a. reinforcement of behaviour, normative definitions, exposure to behaviour models

b. motivated offender, suitable targets, absence of a capable guardian

c. weak family bonds, coercive school control, delinquent peer associations

d. self-defacing relationships, attraction to delinquency, delinquency self-enhancing

4. In the late 1960s, Burgess and Akers reformulated Sutherland’s theory and the learning principles from behaviourist psychology to formulate their theory of criminal behaviour. What was this new theory called?

a. opportunity theory

b. interactional theory

c. social learning theory

d. postmodernist theory

5. What theories were integrated by Regoli and Hewitt (1994) to produce the theory of differential oppression?

a. social bonding theory and social learning theory

b. social bonding theory, social control theory, and strain theory

c. social control theory, liberal conflict theory, and strain theory

d. social control theory, social learning theory, radical conflict theory

6. According to Regoli and Hewitt’s (1994) theory of differential oppression, which of the following were NOT one of the ways of adapting for children who are made to feel powerless by the oppressive acts of adults?

1. passive acceptance
2. exercise of illegitimate, coercive power
3. manipulation of peers
4. rebellion

7. According to lifecourse-developmental theory, which term refers to long-term trends or patterns?

1. trajectories
2. shifts
3. transitions
4. movements

8. According to Moffitt’s (1993) typology of developmental criminology, under what category does the majority of young offenders fit?

a. lifecourse-persistent

b. adolescence-limited

c. persisters

d. experimenters

9. According to the text, which of the following can illustrate disregard for gender analysis in a research study?

a. the use of androgynous terms

b. the use of ethnocentric language

c. the use of misogynous language

d. the use of gender-specific concepts

10. What did Freud argue that female crime and delinquency stemmed from?

1. the Electra complex
2. the Oedipus complex
3. antisocial personality
4. power-control issues

11. In criminology, which hypothesis argues that low crime rates among women and girls, compared to men and boys, is because women and girls are less likely to be caught and processed or reported to the police?

a. liberation hypothesis

b. chivalry hypothesis

c. feminist hypothesis

d. patriarchal hypothesis

12. According to the most recent biological explanations that link hormones to delinquency, what has been found?

1. Female violent offenders have similar levels of testosterone to violent male offenders.
2. Female violent offenders have higher levels of testosterone than non-violent women.
3. Female violent offenders have similar levels of testosterone to non-violent male offenders.
4. Females engaged in delinquent behaviour have similar levels of testosterone to males engaged in delinquent behaviour.

13. Why are cultural studies perspectives gaining prominence in criminology?

a. because they critique that North American theorizing ignores race, class, age, and sexual orientation

b. because of increasing harshness and the negative impact of the criminal justice system

c. because of rising public concerns about youth crime and the justice system

d. because the capitalist society is coercive and designed to support the class structure

SHORT ANSWER

1. Explain the meaning of the terms “primary deviance” and “secondary deviance.” Provide an example to illustrate these concepts.

• Primary deviance is the initial act. Anyone is potentially a “primary” deviant if he or she does things that would likely be considered deviant if they were known about by others.
• Secondary deviance refers to all the behaviour that a person develops as a result of societal responses to his or her primary deviance. Once a person is discovered, he or she may find it difficult to behave or be seen as anything other than deviant precisely because his or her deviance is known to others.

– Example: Johnny gets caught throwing eggs at a neighbour’s house, and as a result of this everyone in the community begins to see Johnny as a delinquent. He develops a deviant self-concept and begins doing drugs and vandalizing buildings. The act of throwing the egg’s at the neighbour’s house would be considered primary deviance, while the drug use and vandalism would be considered secondary deviance.

REF: 180

1. Outline some of the important contributions that opportunity theory makes to understanding crime.

• This perspective acknowledge that there is not one explanation for crime, but rather that different explanations may be required for different types of crimes.
• Decisions or situations that lead to a property crime may be quite different from those leading to an assault.
• This approach leads to a recognition that it is as or more important to understand why a person stops his or her involvement in criminal activity as it is to know why he or she began.
• Crime can increase even if there isn’t a change in the motivated offender, a suitable target, or the absence of a capable guardian but there is a change in routine everyday activities.
• According to rational choice theory, offenders rationally assess all information about the potential crime and make a rational choice based on an assessment of consequences. This involves a process that is sometimes very complex when an individual is making decisions about ``criminal involvement`` or may involve less complex decision making for things such as shoplifting.

REF: 183-184

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Outline the main contributions that Frank Tannenbaum, Edwin Lemert, and Howard Becker made to labelling theory.

Frank Tannenbaum

• He rejected the positivist belief that delinquents are somehow different from non-delinquents and that it is necessary to determine these differences to understand delinquent behaviour.
• Children engage in delinquent behaviour without knowing that others view it as delinquent or bad.
• There is a gradual shift from the definition of the specific act as evil to a definition of the individual (the individual is being labelled, not the behaviour)
• The best adult response to delinquent behaviour is to do nothing because the conflict that develops between a child’s play group and the community turns play into delinquent or criminal behaviour.
• Adults respond to children’s activity by trying to control or stop it and if children resent adult interference and act in a defiant manner, adults will define them as bad.

Edwin Lemert

• Primary deviance is the initial act. Anyone is potentially a “primary” deviant if he or she does things that would likely be considered deviant if they were known about by others.
• Secondary deviance refers to all of the behaviours that a person develops as a result of societal responses to his or her primary deviance.
• Once discovered, a person may find it very difficult to behave or be seen as anything other than deviant precisely because his or her deviance is known to others.
• It becomes increasingly difficult for a secondary deviant to not be deviant in the eyes of the community and as a result the person may begin to develop a self-concept as deviant and act accordingly.
• The transition from primary to secondary deviance involves a lengthy interaction between the person and societal reactions to both the person and her or his behaviour.

Howard Becker

• He argued that acts are not deviant until they are defined as such.
• Deviance is not inherent in an act, but rather is created by our responses to the act.
• Intentionally killing a person is usually considered murder but when it is committed by soldiers in war or as a form of capital punishment it is not considered murder.
• There is a process whereby people become delinquent that begins with attaching a label to a person in response to his or her behaviour. Once attached, the label is generalized to attach to everything that the person does. Deviance becomes a “master status,” meaning that no matter what her or his other qualities, a person who has been labelled will be seen and responded to as a deviant.

REF: 179-181

1. Explain the theory of differential oppression developed by Robert Regoli and John Hewitt (1994). How do children who are made to feel powerless by the oppressive acts of adults adapt?

• The theory of differential oppression integrates strain theory, social control theory, and liberal conflict theory.
• Social control is not always a positive force, and some aspects of social control can be oppressive.
• Oppression is defined as the unjust use or misuse of authority, which “often results from attempts by one group to impose its conception of order on another group.”
• People who are subject to oppressive measures of control are made into “objects” or are viewed as “things” and as a result, they come to view themselves as objects rather than subjects; they become passive and accepting rather than active subjects who exercise autonomy and control over their lives.
• Four main principles of the theory are the following: (1) adults emphasize order in the home and school and children are forced to abide by the rule of those in authority; (2) adults’ perceptions establish children as inferior, subordinate, and troublemakers; (3) the imposition of adults’ conceptions of order on children often becomes extreme to the point of oppression; and (4) when coercion and force become abuse or neglect, children often generalize this abuse of authority to other adults, such as the police or school authorities.
• Children who are made to feel powerless by the oppressive acts of adults adapt in four ways:

1. Passive acceptance—Children who are obedient out of fear behave much like slaves, prison inmates, and battered women. They are “fearful of freedom” and often learn to hate. Their hatred is repressed, which makes them susceptible to low self-esteem, alcoholism, and drug addiction.
2. Exercise of illegitimate, coercive power—The child attempts to demonstrate power over adults by engaging in illicit use of drugs or alcohol, crime, or sexual misbehaviour.
3. Manipulation of peers—The child tries to gain power through control of her or his peers. This strategy gives the child a feeling of empowerment.
4. Retaliation—children try to strike back at the people and institutions that oppress them. School vandalism is one way; assault and murder of teachers or parents is an extreme response. Some children become depressed or commit suicide.

REF: 187-188