Beirne Test Bank Chapter 11 Interpersonal Violence.

11

Interpersonal Violence

CHAPTER OUTLINE

When we think about crime, we usually think of interpersonal violence. The media helps generate this by constantly reporting on the most dramatic violent crimes. The reality, however, shows that crimes of violence are not nearly as common as property offenses and not as devastating to human life and society as white-collar crime. Interpersonal violence tends to occur indoors, between people who know one another. When compared with other countries, though, the United States has one of the highest levels of interpersonal violence among industrialized societies.

11.1 Murder, Assault, Hate Crimes, and Rape

When we think of violent crime, we usually think of murder, assault, and rape. This section analyzes the nature and extent of four types of interpersonal violence.

Murder and Aggravated Assault

Murder is defined as the willful (nonnegligent) killing of one human being by another and is distinct from manslaughter or accidental death because of the level of “intent” the killer possessed at the time of the event. The legal definition of murder, and its various forms, can differ from state to state, depending on the statutes; however, the common theme is that there is some level of malice present in the killer’s mind. Other forms of killing can be voluntary manslaughter (a sudden passion erupts that leads to killing) or involuntary manslaughter (gross negligence or recklessness results in the killing). The UCR data for murder and nonnegligent manslaughter (recall criticisms of the UCR) reveal that 14,827 murders occurred in the United States in 2012, or approximately 5 murders per 100,000 people in the population. Murder is the least common form of crime reported to the police, accounting for 1.2 percent of all offenses. The murder rate rose slightly between 2011–2012 (0.4 percent). Murders are most likely to occur in large cities and in the southern parts of the United States. The typical murder results from a dispute among people who know each other (romantic triangles, property and money disputes, etc.). Only 13 percent of murders involve strangers; 43 percent are among family, friends, and/or acquaintances. There is a seasonal trend to murder: July–August and holiday seasons are the most deadly.

Even though the majority of murders take place within a family or acquaintance setting, there are other types of murder that typically involve strangers: professional murder, serial murder, and mass murder. Professional murder is usually characterized as murder for hire and is most often associated with organized crime. Serial murder occurs when one individual kills many people over a period of time. The murderer usually has no prior relationship to the victim, although the victim has “symbolic” value as a type of person (e.g., hospital worker or prostitute). Although rare, this is typically the sort of crime the general public fears due to its dramatic nature and the tendency of the media to sensationalize it. Some serial murderers operate near their homes, such as John Wayne Gacy or Donald Harvery. Other serial murderers kill outside the proximity of their residence, including Ted Bundy, Henry Lee Lucas, “Unabomber” Theodore Kaczynski, “sniper” killers Lee Boyd Malvo and John Allen Muhammed, and Dale Hauser, who randomly shot and killed six strangers and injured 19 others, mostly pedestrians and bikers in Phoenix.

Mass murder occurs when multiple people are killed at one time. Some mass murders involve strangers (Jiverly Wong and Robert Stewart), others involve a father who kills his family (e.g., Devan Kalathat). The late 1990s school shootings perpetrated by young males (aged 13–18) are also mass murder. Kimmel and Mahler (2003) show that the media distort many of the “school shooting” facts. For example, most shooters are from “stable” families and have no history of child abuse. The “kids killing kids” rhetoric also hides the gendered reality that these killings are males killing males and females. Most of the killers were bullied in school; the shooting seems to be a culturally “acceptable” attempt to restore masculinity. More recently school shootings have occurred on college campuses. In the deadliest mass murder perpetrated by a single person in U.S. history, Seung-Hui killed 32 people and himself at Virginia Tech in 2007. Other examples include Steven Kazmierczak (five killed at Northern Illinois University, 2008), Adam Lanza (20 students aged six to seven, and six adults at Sandy Hook Elementary in Connecticut, 2012), and James E. Holmes (killed 12 people at the opening of Batman in Aurora, Colorado). The most unique and horrific mass murder in the United States was the Al Qaeda terrorist attack against the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, on September 11, 2001. (This case is discussed in detail in Chapter 13 as an example of political crime.)

Guns are the most commonly used weapons in all types of murders in the United States. In 2012, 69 percent of all murders involved in involved firearms, mostly handguns. Firearm ownership and murder correlate. The South has the highest rates of both homicide and gun ownership; the Northeast has the lowest rate in both categories. Assault with a firearm is more likely to result in death than assault with any other type of weapon. Increased murders are associated with increased gun ownership, and more accidental deaths occur when firearms are available. Even so debate about the link of gun ownership and murder continues in the United States. Evidence shows that “victim precipitation” (Luckenbill, 1977) might occur in some male homicides, but others point out that both victim and perpetrator engage in challenges and provocations. Female-perpetrated murder does not fit the “character test” model. When women kill they often do so in response to child abuse or in self-defense; that is, in response to imposed violence.

Aggravated assault is defined as an “unlawful attack by one person upon another for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury.” Similar to murder, it might well be that assaults are most common among people who know each other. The assault rate in the United States is nearly 50 times the murder rate. In 2012 there were 760,739 assaults reported to the police, a rate of 242 per 100,000 people. When compared with victimization reports, however, only 60 percent of assaults were actually reported to the police by victims. According to the NCVS, 996,106 aggravated assaults occurred in 2012. Aggravated assaults on men are more likely to occur in public at the hands of a stranger. Women tend to be assaulted by husbands or boyfriends in private residences, but girls and women are also assaulted in other settings.

Hate Crimes

Hate crimes are perpetrated against people because of their perceived race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity. In 2012, there were 6,222 hate crimes reported to the FBI: 47 percent were racially motivated bias; 20 percent by religious bias; 21 percent were motivated by sexual-orientation bias; 12 percent by ethnicity or national bias; and 0.9 percent by disability bias. A 2012 study by the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs found 2,016 crimes of hate violence against people perceived as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or HIV-positive. LGBTQ people of color are 1.82 times more likely to experience physical violence than are white LGBTQ people. Gay men are significantly more likely than lesbians or bisexuals to experience hate violence. In 2012, straight men committed 46 percent of anti-LGBTQ violence, and police officers account for 24 percent. Groups of two to five offenders committed 19 percent of anti-LGBTQ offenses, and 16 percent of offenses were committed by groups of ten or more. The beating and murder of Angie Zapata in 2009 (see Figure 11.1) was the first in the United States to use a hate crimes statute in the murder trial of a transgendered victim. However, only 16 states and the District of Columbia include gender identity in their hate crimes statutes.

When compared with other crimes of violence, hate crimes are more vicious, more brutal, and most often perpetrated at random on total strangers (usually a single victim). Barbara Perry’s research shows that hate groups encourage a “negative politics of difference” where those outside the white, heterosexual, Christian male “norm” are seen as “appropriate” targets for violence. This trend dates to the 1970s when violence against African Americans perpetrated by white male youth increased. The KKK and racist neo-Nazi skinheads routinely target homosexuals and racial and ethnic minorities, but African Americans are the most frequent victims. People who are homeless, immigrants, Jews, and Arabs are also targeted. A 2013 report by the SPLC showed that the number of hate groups grew by 67 percent since 2000. This increase is linked to “nonwhite” immigration, the economic down turn, and the election of Barack Obama as president. Antigovernment “Patriot” groups and militias increased by 813 percent between 2008 and 2012.

Rape

Rape was traditionally defined by the FBI as “the carnal knowledge of a female, forcibly and against her will.” This meant that the threat or use of physical force was needed to constitute “proof” of the victim’s nonconsent. Rape was thus equated with “forcible rape.” Some object to this strict definition by arguing that in many cases rape is accomplished through other forms of coercion. Although in 1993 wife rape became a crime in all 50 states, in 30 states wife rape is a lesser crime than rape. In most states the husband cannot be prosecuted if the wife is unable to consent due to mental or physical impairment, unconsciousness, or sleep, or if the rape is not reported in a “timely manner.” Criticism of traditional definitions of rape led to the redefinition of rape at the federal level in 2013. The new definition is gender neutral; includes nonconsensual oral, anal, or vaginal penetration by any body part or object; and includes nonforcible rape committed against persons unable to consent.

Recent expansion of rape to include nonphysical forms of coercion (such as economic) is controversial. Finkelhor and Yllö, for example, worry that the expansion “dilutes” the meaning of rape (even as it draws attention to oppressive and coercive sex). They thus distinguish social and interpersonal coercion. Social coercion exists when women feel it is their “duty” to satisfy their husbands sexually. Interpersonal coercion exists when a woman has coitus in the face of a nonphysical threat (e.g., loss of job). In 2012, there were 84,376 reported rapes in the United States, a rate of 31 per 100,000 men and women. Victimization data estimate that 346,830 forcible rapes occurred in 2012, with only 28 percent reported to the police. There are many reasons for not reporting rape: a woman’s fear of retaliation by her rapist (possibly her husband), embarrassment, feelings of being personally responsible for the rape, a desire to protect the offender, fear of not being believed, and the likelihood that the rapist was known to the victim. Women have a far greater chance of being raped by someone they know than by a stranger.

Some have argued that women are complicit in their own victimization by engaging in risky behavior (hitchhiking, going to frat parties, and so on). So-called victim-precipitated rape fails to recognize the woman’s rights, shifts blame from the rapist to the victim, and distracts from the social context of the assault. The idea is also based on a sexist myth about an “uncontrollable” male sex drive, and it conflates violence and domination with sexual desire. In reality, most stranger-rapes are planned. Neither stranger rape nor date rape is an “explosive” act of sudden “desire.” Popular culture portrays rapists as “crazy,” but this does not fit reality. The Glen Ridge gang rape, for example, involved the most popular male athletes in the high school. Messner’s (2002) analysis of the rape notes that dominance bonding among athletes, suppression of empathy, and the culture of silence facilitated the rape. Approximately 30 percent of rapes involve more than one assailant; such rapes are typically committed by strangers and produce more physical injury. Box 11.1 notes that research linking rape and hypermasculine athleticism is mixed. However, male collegiate athletes in high-contact sports (football, hockey, and lacrosse) have higher rates of violence against women than do other men or other male athletes.

Rapists are nearly exclusively male. When women rape it is usually as the accomplice to a man. Although uncommon, men are also victims of rape. Men are most likely to be raped when incarcerated; it is estimated that one in four prisoners is raped. This pattern is part of the larger culture of social and sexual domination by inmates and guards of other inmates. Other settings—college campuses, for example—are also conducive to rape. Rape of girls and women by males is institutionalized in war. Women serving in the U.S. military are also subject to rape by male colleagues. In Aberdeen, Maryland, instructors and officers were charged with sexual assaults against female trainees. Rape of female cadets at air force and naval academies was known about but not addressed. Similarly, complaints of rape of female soldiers were ignored in Afghanistan and Iraq (Courtois, 2008; Gross, 2013).

11.2 Interpersonal Violence in the Family

The reality is that for millions of families violence and the threat of violence are common occurrences. It takes many forms and is a very complex phenomenon. The textbook outlines the major research in these areas: heterosexual wife rape and battering, homosexual partner battering, child abuse, elder abuse, and nonhuman animal abuse.

Heterosexual Wife Rape and Battering

The text (p. 276) defines wife rape as “any sexual activity by a legal spouse that is performed against and without the consent of the other spouse.” Peacock’s 1998 survey of 278 women found that 14 percent of married women are sexually victimized by their husbands. Wife rape is more common that date, acquaintance, and stranger rape. Numbers vary, but all find wife rape to be common when other forms of abuse are present. Of the women who experienced sexual assault from their husbands, the most common forms of sexual abuse were forced intercourse (88 percent), perpetrator fondling victim (48 percent), forced fellatio (45 percent), forced anal sex (40 percent), and forced cunnilingus (17 percent). A large proportion of wife rapists use sexual rather than physical coercion.

There is a close association between wife rape and “wife beating” (30–50 percent of battering includes rape). In 1983, Time magazine reported that six million women are physically abused by their husbands each year. Battery estimates range, some as high as nearly half of all women in their lifetime (Bloom, 2008; Belknap, 2014). Most incidents are not reported to police, but it is clear that battery is the leading cause of injury to women in the United States and requires more hospital treatment than any other condition. Most violence against women in the home is not simply battery but reflects a larger pattern of coercion and control known as patriarchal terrorism (PT). In PT one partner perpetrates the violence exclusively, the violence escalates over time, and it is very likely to cause serious physical injury. PT has a high per-couple frequency and is by far the most common form of battery. Nearly all perpetrators of PT—97 percent—are male. Although PT transcends races and classes, many studies have found a very strong link between PT and economic distress. Another type of battery, violent resistance, is perpetrated almost entirely by female victims of patriarchal terrorism. Common couple violence is not part of a broader pattern but instead arises in the context of an argument. It is infrequent, unlikely to cause serious injury, and does not escalate. Mutual violent control is an extremely rare pattern where both partners are violent and controlling. Table 11.1 provides incidence data by type.

Although most women leave their abusers, leaving is difficult, and women have justifiable fears of increased violence based on abusers’ threats. For example, DeKeseredy’s (2008) research found that 74 percent of women who said they wanted to leave the relationship were sexually abused. Women who attempt to leave, or are in the process of leaving, are overwhelmingly likely to experience more violence. Wife battery is also linked to spousal murder. Husbands and boyfriends are far more likely to kill their wives and girlfriends than women are to kill their male partners. Women kill after surviving years of physical violence, after exhausting all options, or when they fear their lives or those of others are at risk.

Economic dependency of the victim on the assailant also makes it difficult for women to leave abusive situations. Battered women develop coping strategies for survival similar to prisoners of war and face practical concerns such as where to go and get help. Shelters offer short-term refuge for women and children, and every state now has antiwife battering legislation. The 1994 Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) created an Office of Domestic Violence in the Department of Justice. VAWA was reauthorized in 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2013.

Box 11.2 discusses the topics of offline and online stalking. Offline stalking normally refers to repeatedly pursuing someone physically in a harassing or threatening manner. Offline stalking is usually associated with celebrities; but increasingly, researchers and the general public are aware that noncelebrities are also at risk. Intimate partners are the most common victims. Stalking is patterned by gender. NCVS data show that 70 percent of all stalkers are male. Women, especially those who are separated or divorced, are much more likely to be stalked than men are. One in twelve women is stalked over her lifetime, 87 percent of their stalkers are male, and 77 percent of victims know their stalker. Stalking is also linked to domestic physical abuse and murder. Three-quarters of female murder victims were staked by their killer, and 79 percent of physically abused women report being stalked. Gay men are more likely than straight men to be stalked. The 2009 NCVS identifies seven types of stalking and estimates that 14 in 1,000 adults are victims of on- or offline stalking.

Online stalking, or cyberstalking, refers to repeatedly pursuing someone online in a harassing or threatening manner. Online stalking takes many forms, such as unsolicited hate, obscene, or threatening e-mails; malicious messages posted in newsgroups; e-mail viruses; and electronic junk mail, or spam. The vast majority of stalkers are males with female victims. Contrary to popular belief, recent research shows that most Internet-initiated sex offenses are not committed against young children, but against girls aged 13 to 15, by adult males they met in chat rooms. High-tech stalking by GPS, listening devices, or video imaging is now possible.

Gay and Lesbian Partner Battering

In 2013, the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs (NCAVP) documented 2,679 cases of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender domestic violence. Of these, the majority involved people of color (62 percent); women accounted for 33 percent. The patterns and types of gay and lesbian battering are similar to those for heterosexuals, with one exception: the abuser might threaten to reveal the partner’s homosexuality. Such “outing” may put jobs and ties with friends and family at risk. Same-sex battering survivors receive fewer services and less support than straight victims. There are no shelters for battered men—whether gay, straight, bisexual, or transgendered—in the United States.

Child and Elder Abuse

Until the 1960s, violence against children was not considered a serious social problem or even a crime. With the development of pediatric radiology, doctors began to see the effects of child abuse (broken bones, etc.) in their patients. Given the special conditions of this profession, the doctors were able to persuade the community and organize change regarding physical child abuse. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, approximately one million cases of child abuse are reported each year, or a rate of approximately 24 per 1,000 children. Of these cases, 16 percent entail physical abuse, 64 percent neglect, 9 percent sexual abuse, and 7 percent emotional abuse. Girls are more likely to experience physical abuse, whereas boys are more likely to experience neglect. Parents account for 80 percent of all offenders. Both women and men are perpetrators of child abuse, but men commit one-half of the offenses, even though they usually spend far less time taking care of children.

It is estimated that 10 percent of men and 20 percent of women were sexually abused as children. Incest usually involves a father victimizing his daughter(s). Approximately 70 percent of incest victims are girls, and at least one-third of all female victims are younger than 11 years old. Incestuous abuse usually begins for girls at younger ages than for boys who are victimized, and the victimization of girls lasts longer than that of boys (usually three or more years). Sexual abuse is experienced as coercive and involves betrayal and the exploitation of power differences. Victims experience fear, anxiety, depression, guilt, anger, and shame. They often have problems in school and some run away. After effects may last well into adulthood.

Elder abuse. Elder abuse involves physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse, as well as neglect; neglect is the most common form. Elder abuse differs from child abuse in that it also includes financial or material exploitation. There are two major types of elder abuse—domestic and institutional. Women disproportionately constitute the victims of elder abuse, usually at the hands of husbands or sons. Sixty-six percent of all victims are white, 17 percent African American, and 47 percent of elder abuse victims are 80 years of age or older. Adult children and spouses are the usual perpetrators. Domestic abusers tend to be economically dependent on the victim. Most victimization occurs in domestic settings (66 percent), although elders are also physically and emotionally abused in nursing homes. Women are also sexually abused. Ten percent of nurses and aides admit to physical abuse of residents; 40 percent admit committing emotional abuse against residents.

Animal abuse. Although all states and most municipalities have some statutes regulating the treatment of animals, these laws rarely cover all the possibilities of abuse of animals. For example, anticruelty statutes are often species-biased, because the range of animals that they typically define as capable of being abused is narrow and highly selective. Animal abuse is disproportionately present in families where other forms of violence and abuse occur. There are no government-generated statistics of animal abuse, and we have very little systematic knowledge about its dynamics and rates, but researchers speculate that it mirrors patterns found in interhuman violence. Beirne (2009) put forth a fourfold typology of animal sexual assault: zoophilia, adolescent male sexual experimentation, aggravated cruelty, and commodification (which involves the sale of two assaults: a man against a woman, then forced sex between the woman and an animal).

11.3 Interpersonal Violence in the Workplace

Environmental hazards and workplace safety are discussed in Chapter 12.2. This section describes workplace violence perpetrated in personal fashion; thus such assaults, harassment, and murder are not considered occupational crime.

Murder and Assault

Each year, there are approximately 1.3 million simple assaults in the workplace, followed by 325,000 aggravated assaults and 900 murders, totaling about 18 percent of interpersonal violent crime. There are four types of workplace violence: criminal intent, customer-client, worker-on-worker, and personal relationship. Murder is the third-leading cause of workplace death. Murder in the workplace increased by 13 percent in 2012. Most are committed by men against men; involve firearms (86 percent); and occur in retail, food and beverage, transit, and ground transportation businesses. Occupations where employees are most likely to experience assault are law enforcement, mental health, and retail sales. The victimization rate for whites is 25 percent higher than for African Americans, and 59 percent higher than for other races. The male rate is 56 percent higher than the female rate. Most workplace violence occurs between strangers, but personal disputes among workers are the most studied. The “murder by proxy” committed by the “vengeful employee” is usually a disaffected white male, recently demoted or fired from his job, who feels the need to strike back at his employers or fellow employees.

Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment, a violation of Title VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act, was not a crime until 1980. The guidelines apply to all federal, state, and local government agencies as well as to any workplace with 15 or more employees. Sexual harassment is defined as “unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature.” It includes constant ogling, pinching, jokes and sexual innuendo, unwanted touch, coercion, and sexual assault and rape (37,000 per year). Sexual harassment is widespread. Surveys show that prevalence rates have not declined; every year approximately 40 percent of U.S. women report that they have experienced a legally actionable form of sexual harassment. A recent study found that 42 percent of female federal employees report harassment. Most instances go unreported, although victims of sexual harassment might have grounds for a complaint with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) when harassment generates a threatening or hostile work environment. Complaints to the EEOC jumped in the wake of the Clarence Thomas confirmation hearings: from 5,694 in 1990 to 10,900 in the first eight months of 1993. Sexual harassment has many similarities with incest: most victims are women; most abusers are men; victims are economically dependent; and the act involves a betrayal of trust, abuse of power, and pressure to keep it secret. Other effects include stress, fear, and periods of absenteeism. Sexual harassment is most likely in male-dominated workplaces. The rate is 130 percent higher in the coal-mining industry, the criminal justice system, construction, and the military.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Show a movie with an interpersonal violence theme (for example, The Burning Bed, Bastard Out of Carolina, or The Accused) in class. Have students break up into gender-specific groups to address the dynamics of violence for men and for women. They should be able to discuss masculinity and femininity with respect to the movie, as well as how gender issues can be altered to reduce violence against women. Or, have students write a personal reaction paper to the movie wherein they discuss gender issues as suggested above.

2. During class, send students searching for resources (fliers, etc.) available to battered women and children in your local community. With about 20 minutes remaining in class, have them return with their findings. Compare what they found and generate a list of resources available for the class members to keep. Or, have them search for resources devoted to education and treatment programs for men who batter. Compare their findings and create a list.

3. Compare UCR data regarding anti-GLBT hate-motivated violence with data collected by your school and/or data collected by a GLBT rights group. Have the students attempt to explain the difference, including consideration of why anti-GLBT violence is underreported to police.

4. Have students document what mechanisms exist on your campus for (a) reporting anti-GLBT violence and domestic violence and (b) supporting the victims of anti-GLBT violence and domestic violence. Next, have students draw up plans to improve campus resources for both.

5. Have students brainstorm how domestic violence is portrayed in television dramas, film, and reality TV. How do these portrayals compare and contrast with the data presented in the chapter?

6. Visit the Sexual Assault Prevention Tips website http://feministlawprofessors.com/?p=12965 in class as a basis for discussing the normalization of rape, sexual assault, and violence against women. Next, have students do brief interviews with students not in the class regarding what they “know” about rape, sexual assault, and domestic violence and rape. Compare these findings to data presented in the chapter. Have students consider how they might conduct on-campus education campaigns to address the myths and discrepancies.

TEST BANK FOR CHAPTER 11

Multiple-Choice Questions

1. According to the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice in 1967, the fear of crime is really a fear of

a. economic loss.

b. injury.

c. strangers.

d. police.

2. Which of the following is a true statement about “school shootings”?

a. Most offenders come from “stable” homes without histories of abuse.

b. Most offenders were bullied at school.

c. News coverage of school mass murder ignores how the crime is patterned by gender.

d. All of the above.

3. According to Currie’s recent research, the United States has one of the highest levels of __________ among industrialized countries.

a. burglaries

b. abortion by teenaged girls

c. drug use

d. interpersonal violence

4. How do crimes of interpersonal violence differ from corporate violence?

a. Interpersonal violence is face-to-face violence.

b. Interpersonal violence inflicts more harm to more people.

c. Interpersonal violence is usually impersonal and random.

d. Interpersonal violence might result in serious bodily injury, but corporate violence typically does not.

5. Murder is defined by the FBI as the

a. willful (nonnegligent) killing of one human being by any human or corporate entity.

b. willful (nonnegligent) killing of one human being by another.

c. death of an individual that results from premeditated and planned killing.

d. death of an individual that results from reckless or negligent conduct.

6. The best source of data for homicide researchers is

a. a self-report study.

b. the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS).

c. the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR).

d. a participant-observation study.

7. Murder is the most serious but least common crime. What percent of the Index crimes does murder account for?

a. 1.2 percent

b. 5 percent

c. 12 percent

d. 33 percent

8. Gay and lesbian partner battering is similar to that which occurs in heterosexual relationships EXCEPT that

a. shelters do not exist for male victims.

b. women are far more likely to be the assailant than men are.

c. battering among gay and lesbian partners is usually not part of a broader pattern of coercion and control.

d. family members are more likely to intervene due to their homophobia.

9. Murder occurs primarily in __________ and the __________.

a. rural areas, Northeast

b. suburban areas, Midwest

c. big cities, South

d. agricultural centers, Southwest

10. Why might the UCR undercount murder?

a. Some murders are ignored or overlooked.

b. Coroners may mistake a murder for a suicide.

c. Bodies may be hidden.

d. All of the above are reasons why the UCR may undercount murder.

11. Homicides usually result from

a. serial killers stalking strangers.

b. mass murderers killing at random.

c. mothers killing their children before birth.

d. disagreements between individuals who know each other.

12. The largest percentage of murders involve arguments over

a. romantic triangles.

b. property and money.

c. failed business ventures.

d. both a and b.

13. Murders are more likely to occur during

a. holiday seasons and summer vacations.

b. the typical working day.

c. cold freezes in the Northeast.

d. family cookouts.

14. Professional murder occurs when someone kills for

a. personal revenge.

b. profit.

c. professional revenge.

d. none of the above reasons.

15. What type of murders are “school shootings”?

a. serial murder

b. mass murder

c. victim-precipitated murder

d. hate crime murder

16. The vast majority of homicides in the United States involve

a. baseball bats.

b. knives.

c. firearms.

d. strangulations.

17. Regions with the highest rate of __________ tend to have the highest homicide rates.

a. gun ownership

b. domestic violence

c. juvenile violence

d. explosive devices

18. Gun ownership might not cause murder rates to increase, but the presence of available weapons contributes to the higher probability of __________ killings.

a. impulsive

b. defensive

c. accidental

d. both a and c

19. According to Luckenbill’s research, which of the following is NOT an instance when victim-precipitated murder is likely to occur?

a. The victim makes what the offender perceives as an offensive move, gesture, or remark.

b. The offender submits with a verbal or physical gesture.

c. The victim retaliates, creating a “working” agreement that commits both parties to a violent resolution of the conflict.

d. The battle eventually results in the death of the victim.

20. Aggravated assault is defined by the FBI as an unlawful attack by one person upon

a. another.

b. another for any reason whatsoever.

c. another for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury.

d. another for the express purpose of domination and control.

21. Which group is the most frequent victim of hate crime based on racial and ethnic bias?

a. illegal immigrants

b. Native Americans

c. African Americans

d. Arab Americans

22. According to the NCVS, __________ percent of aggravated assaults are reported to the police.

a. 23

b. 35

c. 47

d. 60

23. Hate crimes are

a. perpetrated on people because of their perceived race, religion, disability, ethnicity, or sexual orientation.

b. perpetrated on people due to their level of hate for the offenders.

c. violent acts that are impossible to define.

d. violent acts that result in shunned groups of people.

24. Of the hate crimes reported in 2011, the majority were motivated by __________ bias.

a. religious

b. sexual orientation

c. racial

d. disability

25. According to recent research incidents of hate crimes are

a. declining.

b. staying about the same.

c. increasing.

d. not linked to organized hate groups.

26. Hate violence differs from other forms of interpersonal violence in what ways?

a. Hate crimes are most often committed by strangers.

b. Hate crimes are most likely perpetrated by several attackers against one victim.

c. Hate crimes are often more brutal.

d. All of the above

27. According to Perry’s research, hate groups engage in the “politics of difference” to

a. develop a more tolerant society for whites.

b. negate, exclude, and repress other groups.

c. include, assimilate, and incorporate other groups.

d. survive in a multicultural world.

28. The traditional FBI definition of rape was the

a. carnal knowledge of a female.

b. carnal knowledge of a female, without consent.

c. carnal knowledge of a female, forcibly and against her will.

d. entitlement of married men.

29. Based on the definition of forcible rape, the victim must prove that

a. the attacker was not her husband or boyfriend.

b. the attacker was not provoked.

c. she was unwilling to participate.

d. physical force was used against her before or during the rape.

30. How have state and federal level rape definitions changed?

a. They are now gender neutral.

b. They now include oral and anal penetration, in addition to vaginal.

c. They now include sexual penetration with someone unable to consent.

d. All of the above are correct.

31. Which form of domestic violence is most common?

a. common couple violence

b. violent resistance

c. patriarchal terrorism

d. mutual violent control

32. Because of patriarchal expectations within legal marriage, many women feel they

a. are unable to express themselves openly.

b. are free to determine their own sexuality.

c. have a “duty” to perform sexually for their husbands.

d. cannot initiate sexual contact with their husbands.

33. Research by Finkelhor and Yllö indicates that within patriarchal marriages, many women consent to sexual intercourse to

a. get more money for shopping.

b. “keep the peace.”

c. protect the kids.

d. honor their marriage vows.

34. What type of rape is most likely to be reported to the police?

a. date rape

b. acquaintance rape

c. serial rape

d. stranger rape

35. Why is rape underreported to the police?

a. Rape victims might feel embarrassed or ashamed.

b. Rape victims fear that they will not be believed.

c. Rape victims might feel that they should have been able to prevent the rape.

d. All of the above are reasons why rape is underreported.

36. Compared to men, women are more likely to kill their partner

a. in a fit of jealous rage.

b. after enduring years of physical abuse.

c. as part of a murder-suicide.

d. using small handguns.

37. Women are most likely to be victims of violent crimes when they are

a. widowed.

b. single.

c. married.

d. divorced.

38. Which occupation group is most likely to suffer simple and aggravated workplace assaults?

a. college professors

b. mental health workers

c. retail sales

d. law enforcement

39. Which of the following is a true statement about wife rape?

a. Wife rape is less physically brutal and humiliating than other forms of rape.

b. Wife rape is less likely to be “completed.”

c. Over 30 states have legal exemptions for husbands.

d. Wife rape is taken more seriously by the legal system.

40. Marital rape victims typically experience

a. episodic rape.

b. chronic rape.

c. periodic rape.

d. sporadic rape.

41. Woman battering is often a companion crime to

a. assault.

b. burglary.

c. marital rape.

d. child abuse.

42. Stalking

a. happens only online.

b. only affects women.

c. is more likely to affect men.

d. none of the above.

43. What is the leading cause of injury to women in the United States?

a. rape by strangers

b. workplace violence

c. battery and domestic violence

d. robbery

44. Battered women are often trapped in abusive relationships due to

a. realistic fear of retaliation and more brutal violence being inflicted upon them.

b. a lack of economic resources for themselves and their children.

c. realistic fear for their own survival.

d. all of the above.

45. The rate of aggravated assault is __________ the murder rate.

a. about 50 times greater than

b. about 10 times greater than

c. about the same as

d. a bit less than

46. Which part of the medical profession “discovered” child abuse?

a. pediatric psychology

b. pediatric dentistry

c. pediatric radiology

d. pediatric anesthesiology

47. Which of the following impeded physicians’ recognition of child abuse?

a. They were unwilling to believe that parents would physically harm their children.

b. The norm of confidentiality.

c. Their reluctance to involve the criminal justice system.

d. All of the above impeded recognition of child abuse.

48. Most incest is committed by __________ against __________.

a. grandfathers, granddaughters

b. fathers, daughters

c. brothers, sisters

d. uncles, nieces

49. Why was the trial of Angie Zapata’s murderer so important?

a. It was the first successful use of an anti-ethnic hate crime statute.

b. It was the first time a hate crimes statute was used successfully in the death of a transgender person.

c. It was the first successful prosecution to link wife rape with battery.

d. It was the first successful prosecution of a murder preceded by cyberstalking.

50. It is not uncommon to see that __________ are abused in homes where women and children are abused.

a. prescription drugs

b. visitors

c. companion animals

d. husbands

51. Sexual harassment is a violation of

a. the Violence Against Women Act.

b. the Equal Opportunity Employment Act.

c. Title VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act.

d. OSHA workplace standards.

52. The most likely perpetrator of “vengeful” workplace violence is a __________ who has been recently fired, reprimanded, or demoted.

a. black female

b. white female

c. black male

d. white male

53. Most workplace assaults are

a. simple assaults.

b. aggravated assaults.

c. fatal.

d. victim precipitated.

54. Which is the most common form of antireligious hate crime?

a. violent crimes against Muslims

b. property crimes committed against Jews and Muslims

c. violent crimes against Christian men

d. violent crimes against Hindu women

55. Which type of hate group has increased the most since the election of President Barack Obama?

a. KKK

b. Neo-Nazi

c. “Patriot” groups and armed militias

d. Leftist skinheads

56. Which of the following is incorrect regarding stalking?

a. Most victims know their stalker.

b. The most common form of stalking is stalking of celebrities.

c. Most women are stalked by the intimate partner who physically abused them.

d. Three-quarters of female victims are stalked by their killer.

True or False Questions

1. _____ Murder is the most common and most feared crime reported to the police.

2. _____ The existence of mens rea distinguishes aggravated assault from simple assault.

3. _____ The difference between aggravated assault and murder is usually the presence of a firearm.

4. _____ Rape and sexual harassment are similar in that they both entail dehumanizing the victims and abuse of power.

5. _____ Compared to girls, sexual abuse of boys begins when they are younger and therefore lasts longer.

6. _____ Less than 2 percent of married women are sexually assaulted by their husbands.

7. _____ Heterosexual and homosexual partner battering are exactly the same in terms of dynamics, types of threats they present, and impact on the victims.

8. _____ When compared to other crimes of interpersonal violence, hate crimes are usually more physically brutal, committed by a small group against a single victim, and committed by strangers to the victim.

9. _____ Hate crimes are most often motivated by anti-gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender bias.

10. _____ Abuse of companion animals is common in homes where other forms of physical abuse occur.

11. _____ Most murders occur between strangers.

12. _____ Stalking occurs only online.

13. _____ Elder abuse involves physical, sexual, and emotional abuse.

14. _____ Animal abuse is a complex phenomenon that is not well understood.

15. _____ The most common form of workplace violence is homicide.

16. _____ Murder is the third-leading cause of death in the workplace.

17. _____ Most battered women do not leave situations of domestic violence.

18. _____ Stranger rape is the most common form of rape.

19. _____ Most states have hate crime statutes that include gender identity.

20. _____ Most conventional crime is nonviolent.

Essay Questions

1. Fear of crime is typically fear of interpersonal violent crime. But there are many myths related to violent crime. Write a brief essay that compares some of the myths of interpersonal violent crime to its reality.

Required content:

1. Myth: interpersonal violent crime is common.
2. Reality: there are many more crimes committed against property than there are interpersonal violent crimes
3. Myth: violent crime is committed by strangers.
4. Reality: with the exception of hate crime, mass and serial murder, most violent crime is committed by people known to the victim.
5. Myth: most violent crime is committed in public.
6. Reality: most violent crime is committed in private.

Additional content:

1. Myth: murder is random.
2. Reality: murder tends to occur in July–August and around holidays.
3. Myth: stranger rape is the most common form of rape.
4. Reality: most rapes are committed by persons known to the victim.
5. Myth: marital rape is not really rape.
6. Reality: marital rape is typically brutal and repetitive

2. Interpersonal violent crime tends to be patterned by gender. Demonstrate your understanding of this idea by briefly comparing and contrasting the gendering of rape, battery, and spousal murder.

Required content:

1. Rape is overwhelmingly a crime committed by men against women.
2. Battery is overwhelmingly a crime committed by men against women.
3. Most spousal murder involves a man killing his current or former girlfriend or wife.

Additional content:

1. When women rape, it is usually as an accomplice with a man.
2. Men are rarely raped—unless they are incarcerated. Prison rape involves a man dominating his victim.
3. Women who are murdered by their male intimate partner are also usually stalked by him.
4. Men often kill their female spouse when she attempts to leave him.
5. When women kill their spouses it is usually to protect herself or her children after years of abuse.
6. In “common couple violence,” female victims of battery are more likely to be seriously injured than males are.
7. Shelters exist for female but not male victims of battery.

3. Although hate crime includes both crimes against property and crimes against persons, such as assault and murder, hate crime violence differs from conventional interpersonal violence in important ways. Write a brief essay that compares and contrasts hate crime and nonhate crime interpersonal violence on at least three points.

Required content (any three of the following):

1. Hate crime violence tends to be more viscous and brutal than conventional violent crime.
2. In conventional violent crime, the victim and offender usually know one another, but hate crimes are usually committed against strangers.
3. Interpersonal violent crime often occurs in private, but hate crime violence often occurs in public.
4. Much interpersonal violent crime is one assailant against one victim, whereas hate crime often includes multiple offenders against one victim.
5. In hate crime the victim is symbolic of a group.
6. Much interpersonal violent crime is intraracial whereas much hate crime is interracial.

4. Briefly explain the similarities among and differences between child abuse and elder abuse. Be sure to address issues of dependency and gender among victims and perpetrators, and make at least three points of comparison in the course of your answer.

Required content (any three of the following):

1. Both child and elder abuse include neglect, physical abuse, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse.
2. In child abuse the victim is economically dependent on the assailant, but in elder abuse the assailant is often dependent on the victim.
3. Most victims of child sexual abuse and elder sexual abuse are women.
4. Most perpetrators of sexual abuse of children and elders are men.
5. Most perpetrators of physical abuse of children and elders are men.
6. Most victims of child abuse and elder abuse feel pressure to keep the abuse secret.
7. Both child abuse and elder abuse include betrayals of trust.
8. In contrast to child abuse, elder abuse includes financial and/or material exploitation.

Additional content:

1. Elders may be abused in the home or in nursing homes by caregivers.
2. Boys are more likely to be neglected, and girls are more likely to be physically abused.
3. Child abuse and neglect increase with age for boys and girls.
4. Half of all sexual abuse against girls is committed by family members, but only 20 percent of sexual abuse of boys is by family members.
5. About 70 percent of sexual abuse victims are female.
6. Although about half of child abuse and neglect is committed by men, women are much more likely to do most of the childcare.
7. Parents account for 80 percent of child abuse.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Boys Don’t Cry (1999): Dramatization of the hate crime, rape and, murder of Brandon Teena, a transman. Hillary Swank won the Academy Award for Best Actress.

Changing Men: Unlearning the Behaviors of Domestic Violence (2008): Three abusive men confront their violence in this documentary film.

Date Rape: A Violation of Trust (2008): Documentary film that explains what rape is, the effects of rape, and how to support survivors of rape.

Date Rape Backlash (1994): Charts how public opinion changed regarding date rape (from epidemic to false accusations).

Defending Our Lives (1994): Women speak about domestic violence. Academy Award winner for best documentary film.

DeKeseredy, Walter. (2011). Violence Against Women: Myths, Facts, Controversies. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

DeKeseredy, Walter, and Martin D. Schwartz. 2013. Male Peer Support and Violence Against Women. Boston: Northeastern University Press.

Domestic Violence Awareness Handbook: http://www.dm.usda.gov/shmd/handbook.htm.

Jenness, Valerie. 2008. Pluto, Prisons, and Plaintiffs: Notes on Systematic Back Translation from an Embedded Researcher. Social Problems 55 (1): 1–22. (Details her research on rape in the California prison system.)

Let’s Talk About It. (2005): Three female survivors of domestic violence discuss the abuse they suffered at the hands of their husbands.

National Task Force to End Violence Against Women (NTF): http://4vawa.org/about/.

The National Domestic Violence Hotline: 1-800-799-SAFE (7233) or 1-800-787-3224 (TTY). Also online at http://www.thehotline.org/

Zilney, Laura J., and Lisa Anne Zilney. 2009. Perverts and Predators: The Making of Sexual Offending Laws. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.