8th Edition Test Bank Theoretical Criminology 8e Snipes - Theoretical Criminology 8e | Test Bank Volds by Jeffrey B. Snipes. DOCX document preview.

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8th Edition Test Bank Theoretical Criminology 8e Snipes

Chapter 1: Theory and Crime

True/ False

  1. Spiritual explanations of crime deemed crime to be a phenomenon based on the Earth.
  2. The modern-day penitentiary developed by the Quakers was based on the spiritual explanation of crime.
  3. Theories make statements about the relationships between things that we can observe.
  4. When two things (e.g., grades and time spent studying) are vary together in a systematic manner, they are said to be correlated.
  5. A negative correlation is said to occur when, on average, one phenomenon increases and another phenomenon also increases.

  1. Theories that have a coherent explanation of why two or more things are related are said to have theoretical rationale.
  2. Theories help us explain the facts of crime.
  3. The behavior of criminal law explanation of crime suggests that people are driven to crime through opportunity.
  4. Structure/process theories suggest crime is due to individual factors such as biology and drug use.
  5. Theory testing helps researchers identify causes of crime with 100% certainty.

Chapter 1: Theory and Crime

Multiple Choice

  1. Examples of punishments for crimes based on spiritual explanations include:
    1. Compurgation
    2. Trial by ordeal
    3. Trial by battle
    4. Drowning
    5. All of the above
  2. Theories can be falsified by:
    1. Using your best judgment to determine if the theory explains a behavior
    2. Conducting a study, collecting observations, and comparing those observations to the arguments made in the theory
    3. Flipping a coin to pick the most probable theoretical explanation
    4. None of the above

  1. According to Bernard, Snipes, and Gerould, causation means four things are present. They are:
    1. Testability, absence of spuriousness, variance, implication
    2. Time sequence, correlation, absence of spuriousness, theoretical rationale
    3. Observation, linearity, theoretical rationale, tautology
    4. Justification, evidence that the theory is correct, time sequence, believability
  2. Causal relationships are statements of:
    1. Probability
    2. Relevance
    3. Believability
    4. Deference
  3. Bernard and his colleagues discuss three different ways of thinking about crime (i.e., assumptions about criminal behavior). Which one of the choices below is NOT one of the them?
    1. Criminal behavior is a result of how laws are written and enforced
    2. Criminal behavior is freely chosen
    3. Criminal behavior is a natural phenomenon
    4. Criminal behavior is beyond the control of individuals
  4. What are the three main categories of criminological theories?
    1. Individual differences; structure/process; behavior of criminal law
    2. Classical; positivist; moderate
    3. Puritan; Quaker; subcultural
    4. Social control; strain; deterrence
  5. Correlation means that two variables:
    1. Are not related
    2. Vary together in an unsystematic way
    3. Vary together in a systematic way
    4. Are causally related
  6. Criminology is the study of:
    1. Explanations the facts of crime
    2. How to present the facts of crime
    3. Identifying criminal behaviors
    4. Prosecuting crimes
  7. __________ criminology sees crime as determined by multiple causes and calls for attempts to turn people into law abiding citizens through rehabilitation.
    1. Spiritual
    2. Classical
    3. Reformatory
    4. Positivist
  8. Self-control theory states that higher levels of self-control are related to lower levels of delinquency. What type of relationship is expected between these two variables?
    1. A negative correlation
    2. A positive correlation
    3. No correlation
    4. Causation

Chapter 1: Theory and Crime

Short Answer

  1. Spiritual explanations of criminal behavior in U.S. colonies were typical during the 1600-1700s. Describe the rationale behind this explanation of crime and outline the evolution over time to current explanations of criminal behavior.
  2. Quaker beliefs and practices are evident in the modern prison system. How were these beliefs and practices used in the development of the early penitentiary? What aspects of modern prisons can be traced to the Quaker era?
  3. Describe how theories can be falsified. Why is it important for theories to be falsifiable?
  4. Correlation and causation are often confused by students. First, define the two concepts: correlation and causation. Second, describe the use of correlation and causation in theory development and testing. Why are they important, what do they tell us about explanations of crime?
  5. Identify the four elements of meaningful scientific causation. How do they contribute to theoretical testing?
  6. Describe the following theoretical relationships, assuming two variables: positive correlation, negative correlation, no correlation.
  7. What was the penance system established by the Quakers in the U.S. in the early 1800s? How did this model influence modern day corrections?
  8. How do criminologists use scientific theories in their work? What benefits do scientific theories have over other explanations of crime?
  9. Some criminological theories focus on the characteristics of individuals to explain involvement in criminal behavior. Describe the role of probability in these explanations of crime.
  10. There are three main categories of theories described in the text: (1) individual; (2) structural/process; and (3) behavior of criminal law. Describe the tenets of each category and provide an example explanation of crime for each category.

Chapter 2: Theory and Policy in Context

True/False

1. Theories help criminologists link trends in crime to policy.

2. Violent crime increased in the 2000-2010 period.

3. During 1985-1994, adult homicide tripled.

4. “Super-predators” were believed to become responsible for an increase in violent crime.

5. Warren Court legal protections have a substantial effect on the crime rate.

6. Moral poverty reduces one’s ability to control their impulses.

7. The book Body Count is a discussion on the benefits of liberal crime policies.

8. Currie pinpointed the rise in incarceration rates between 1970 and the mid-1990s to the war on drugs.

9. Violent crime and prison populations both increased between the early 1970s and mid-1990s.

10. Hot spots policing in New York had positive effects in reductions in crime.

Chapter 2: Theory and Policy in Context

Multiple Choice

1. The great crime decline has been attributed to:

A. Aging baby boomers

B. Crack use in US cities

C. Reduction in prison populations

D. Traditional policing methods 

2. Zimring estimates that policing efforts have had no more than ____% impact on crime rates.

A. 20

B. 15

C. 10

D. 5

3. ____________are referred to as Incapacitation effects.

A. Reductions in crime when prison population is high

B. Threats of imprisonment

C. Increases in drug use

D. Oscillations in crime

4. ____________________is a court ruling attributed to reductions in crime.

A. Miranda v. Arizona

B. Bratton v. New York State Board of Parole

C. Roe v. Wade

D. Federal Safe Water Drinking Act

5. Criminogenic causes are those that: 

A. Decrease the likelihood of criminal behavior 

B. Increase the likelihood of criminal behavior

C. Have no effect on criminal behavior 

D. None of the above 

6. The Gini Index is a measure of:

A. Moral poverty 

B. Income distribution

C. Crime rates

D. Lagged effects

7. Removal of __________ from gasoline is believed to contribute to the great crime decline.

A. Tetraethyl lead

B. Malaria

C. Ethanol

D. Emissions 

8. Two tactics used by NYC police attributed to a decrease in crime are:

A. Hot spots policing and arrest 

B. Community policing and noise abatement 

C. Foot patrols and bicycle patrols 

D. Hot spots policing and a focus on drug markets

9. A lagged effect means something happens:

A. At the same time as something else

B. Before something else

C. After something else

D. None of the above 

10. Lead-based paint in homes was associated with ________ in New Orleans.

A. Neighborhood crime rates

B. Robbery rates

C. Incarceration rates

D. Death rates

Chapter 2: Theory and Policy in Context

Short Answer

  1. Describe the changes in the national reporting systems of crime: UCR and NIBRS. How did NIBRS attempt to improve on the UCR? What remains a challenge to our quantification of crime?
  2. Why are police agencies not required to participate in the UCR and NIBRS initiatives? What benefits would we see in the reporting of crime if police agencies were mandated to share this information through these programs?
  3. The United States experienced a crime decline in the late 1990s. Identify and describe three reasons attributed to this decline.
  4. Choose one of the following segments, a, b, or c. Using the chosen segment, compare and contrast the two explanations of the crime reduction experienced in the United States in the 1990s. Which one had a greater impact on the reduction in crime; why?
  5. Economy AND aging of baby boomers
  6. Lagged effect of Roe v. Wade AND reduction in crack epidemic
  7. Removal of led from gasoline AND police practices such as hot spots policing
  8. New York City experienced a great reduction in criminal activity in the 1990s. Identify and describe two policing activities that Zimring attributes to this crime decline. Compare and contrast these policing activities to two non-policing explanations of the crime decline. Are policing activities or these other explanations responsible for more of the reduction? Define your position.
  9. Describe the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) (e.g., frequency of administration, sample, types of crimes examined). Does the NCVS contribute a substantial improvement in crime statistics compared to the UCR? What about the NIBRS?
  10. Zimring’s analysis of the effect of imprisonment explored the deterrent and incapacitative effects of jails/prisons. Using the data presented in the text, describe the utility of imprisonment in reducing crime.
  11. What is the “Ferguson Effect”? How has it contributed to crime rate trends in cities across the US?
  12. What does the term “super-predator” mean? Describe its evolution and whether the idea of “super-predators” was realized and what impact it had on criminology.
  13. A researcher wants to learn about the rate of drug use among high-school students. Using the three main data sources discussed in the text (UCR, NIBRS, NCVS) describe the benefits and drawbacks of each data source for this research topic.

Chapter 3: Classical Criminology

True/False

  1. Cesare Beccaria is considered the father of classical criminology.
  2. At its evolution, classical theory was considered an alternative to the spiritual explanations of crime.
  3. Beccaria believed that sanctions should be swift and a surprise.
  4. Strain theory has its roots in the classical school of criminological thinking.
  5. Punishment severity is the best predictor of deterrence effectiveness.
  6. Rational choice involves weighing the benefits and consequences of committing a crime.
  7. Rational choice theory suggests people who commit crimes are irrational.
  8. Routine activities theory places emphasis on where crimes occur.
  9. Crime increased in the 1970s due to an increase in the availability of suitable crime targets and a lack of human supervision.
  10. Deterrence-based theories believe humans commit crime because they are forced into crime.

Chapter 3: Classical Criminology

Multiple Choice

  1. Theories that focus on the punishment of offenders are labeled:
    1. Positivistic theories
    2. Macro theories
    3. Classical theories
    4. General theories
  2. Opportunity theories posit that offenders are more likely to commit crime given the chance. This line of thinking is congruent with which school of thought:
    1. Positivist
    2. Classical
    3. Social contract
    4. Chicago School
  3. The social contract is an agreement among members of a society to respect the rights of others in order for their own rights to be equally respected. This idea was put forth by the following philosophers:
    1. Shaw, McKay, Beccaria, Sampson
    2. Hobbes, Lombroso, Freud, Glueck
    3. Moffitt, Clarke, Ellis, Cornish
    4. Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau
  4. The United States criminal justice system is based primarily on:
    1. Deterrence theory
    2. Positivist theory
    3. Punishment
    4. Biological positivism
  5. Deterrence theory supports the notion that punishments should be:
    1. Harsh enough to deter future offending
    2. Meted out in private
    3. More severe than the harm inflicted on society by the crime
    4. Swift, certain, and appropriately severe
  6. Routine activity theory suggests that decreases in crime are due to:
    1. A decrease in opportunity
    2. An increase in capable guardians
    3. A lack of motivated offenders
    4. All of the above
  7. General deterrence aims to reduce crime among:
    1. All potential offenders
    2. People who have offended before
    3. Convicted offenders
    4. 18-25 year olds
  8. The death penalty is said to have a __________________ on homicide rates.
    1. Decreasing effect
    2. Brutalization effect
    3. Generalization effect
    4. No effect
  9. Some focused deterrence policies such as Operation Ceasefire join deterrence efforts with____________ to reduce crime:
    1. Incarceration
    2. Intervention
    3. Incentives
    4. Traditional enforcement
  10. Closed-circuit television (CCT) is an example of a policy based in:
    1. Rational choice theory
    2. Situational crime prevention theory
    3. Social disorganization theory
    4. Routine activity theory

Chapter 3: Classical Criminology

Short Answer

  1. There are three components to routine activity theory: motivated offenders, a lack of capable guardians, and suitable targets. First, provide a definition for each component. Second, describe a victimization scenario that could be explained by routine activity theory.
  2. Cesare Beccaria had substantial influence over the fields of criminology and law. Describe Beccaria’s influence over the development of the criminal justice system in the United States. Explain how Beccaria’s influence has been maintained for over 200 years and its sustaining relevance.
  3. Rational choice theories propose that individuals consider the pros and cons of crime before they violate the law. Using techniques from CPTED – crime prevention through environmental design – devise an urban community approach to reduce violent crimes such as robbery, rape, and murder.
  4. What factors may counteract or negate the theoretical bases of rational choice? Describe a crime or victimization situation where rational choice would not apply based on these factors.
  5. According to Pogarsky and Piquero offenders may experience a “resetting effect.” What is the “resetting effect” and does it apply to all types of criminals? Why or why not?
  6. Two study methodologies are used to examine the deterrent effect of imprisonment: cross-sectional and longitudinal. Describe each of these methods generally, and how they are applied to studies of the effects of imprisonment. Which method would result in stronger evidence?
  7. Beccaria proposed three main elements of deterrence. Name these elements and, using your knowledge of contemporary criminal justice case processing as a guide, apply them to the following crimes: white collar crime, disorderly conduct, and first-degree homicide. Based on your description, which of the three crimes would experience the greatest deterrent effect?
  8. The social contract is the basis of many modern democracies. What is the social contract? How is it derived, and who participates in upholding it?
  9. According to the classical school, human nature is based on free will. Is it accurate to say that all humans possess free will? Using examples from recent headlines, support your answer with a concrete example of why absolute free will is possible or impossible.
  10. Cesare Beccaria provided many ideas on making the criminal justice system fair and effective. Which of the eight principles highlighted in the text do you believe is most important? Support your choice with an example of how that principle is applied in criminal justice today to ensure the system is just and effective.

Chapter 4: Biological Factors and Criminal Behavior

True/ False

  1. Most biological criminological theories advocate for biological determinism.
  2. Biosocial theories support an interaction between biological and social factors.
  3. Physiognomy is the study of the shape of the skull.
  4. Lombroso coined the term atavistic to describe criminals.
  5. Twin studies aid the understanding of biological versus environmental theories of criminal behavior.
  6. Monoamine oxidase (MAOA) is known as the criminal gene.
  7. Castration is effective to reduce all violent crimes.
  8. Brain imaging techniques are useful tools for examining abnormalities among violent offenders.
  9. Environmental exposures to toxins may alter human biology and contribute to criminal behavior.
  10. Epigenics argues that criminality is inherited.

Chapter 4: Biological Factors and Criminal Behavior

Multiple Choice

  1. Phrenology is a biologically based theory. This theory is based on the:
    1. Assessment of a person’s character or personality from their outer appearance
    2. Shape of a person’s skull which predicts criminality
    3. Understanding that criminality is based on testosterone levels
    4. Misconception that criminality is inherited
  2. Biosocial theories support the ideology that crime is a function of:
    1. Nature only
    2. Nurture only
    3. Nature and nurture
    4. Environment
  3. One method of examining biological trait theories of crime is to examine twins. Such studies, however, suffer from the following limitation(s):
    1. Inability to control for biological determinants of behavior
    2. Large sample sizes
    3. Assumption of environmental equality
    4. There are not enough twins
  4. The theory related to XYY chromosomes among males supports the belief that:
    1. An extra “Y” chromosome increases criminality among males
    2. An extra “Y” chromosome decreases criminality among males
    3. An extra “Y” chromosome has no effect on crime among males
    4. None of the above
  5. The theory that increased hormone levels (i.e., testosterone) are associated with criminal behavior suffers from the following problem:
    1. Parsimony
    2. Reliability
    3. Direction of causality
    4. Logical consistency
  6. Many theories have policy implications. One biology based policy is chemical castration to reduce hormone levels. This type of policy would be applicable for what type of criminal behavior?
    1. Larceny
    2. Sex offenders
    3. Kidnapping
    4. Homicide
  7. One explanation of crime discussed in the readings examines the relationship between physical attributes and crime. This theory suggests that criminals are more likely to have the following features: long arms, wrinkles, protruding lips, extra fingers/toes and excessive hair. This theory was the put forth by:
      1. Darwin
      2. Lombroso
      3. Goring
      4. Gall
  8. Which of the following is NOT a common problem shared by early biological positivistic theories?
  9. They suggest that one can genetically inherit a trait or propensity that is socially defined and culturally relative
  10. Most of their analyses are plagued by weak operationalization of key concepts such as “feebleminded,” “inferior,” and “crime”
  11. Many of these studies are based on large, unbiased samples
  12. Not all biological differences are inherited; many may be due to prenatal environment, injury, and inadequate diet

  1. The effort to control degenerates through sterilization, euthanasia, and cutbacks in welfare is known as the:
  2. Eugenics movement
  3. Jukes phenomenon
  4. Goring effect
  5. Social Darwinist movement
  6. Which is NOT a methodological limitation of adoption studies?
    1. Some children are adopted after spending time with their biological parents
    2. It is difficult to separate environmental from genetic influences
    3. Adoptive parents are not representative of the population
    4. Birth mothers cannot influence the child

Chapter 4: Biological Factors and Criminal Behavior

Short Answer

  1. Design a study to test the biological versus environmental explanations of criminal behavior. Who would be in the sample? How would they be selected? What type of data/information would you want to collect and analyze?
  2. What are some of the main barriers to testing biological explanations of crime? Be sure to include ethical and logistic concerns.
  3. Some research suggests that the environment can influence biological changes which can lead to crime. Name two of these environmental influences and describe how they are believed to influence behavior. Are these viable explanations of crime?
  4. Historic biological explanations of crime included physical features. Why did these explanations fall out of favor? What biological explanations replaced them and why?
  5. Lombroso identified three major types of criminals. Name these criminal types, describe their purported features, and how they contributed to criminal behavior. What led to the demise of Lombroso’s categorization?
  6. Sheldon identified three body types among criminals: endomorphic, mesomorphic, and ectomorphic. What are the characteristics of each body type? Which one was believed to be more prevalent among criminals?
  7. How can genetic explanations of crime add to the already vast field of criminological theory? What do the more contemporary studies contribute beyond what we already know from more established theories such as classical deterrence?
  8. What are the major considerations in testing biological explanations of crime? What is necessary for a full biological explanation of crime?
  9. What policies could be enacted based on results from biological explanations of crime? Which biological factors are dynamic and could be altered using ethical policies; which biological factors are less amenable to change or intervention?
  10. How can biological factors be used to explain changes in crime rates in the United States? What other factors may also contribute to changes in crime rates? Which is the most probable explanation?

Chapter 5: Psychological Factors and Criminal Behavior

True/False

  1. The adolescent limited part of Terrie Moffitt’s developmental theory explains the crime curve.
  2. Personality traits tend to remain stable throughout the life course.
  3. Situational theories and biological explanations have no influence over personality development.
  4. The average intelligence quotient (IQ) is 125.
  5. According to Binet, intelligence is a fixed quantity and cannot be changed.
  6. Personality theories illustrate problematic traits among individuals that may lead to criminal behavior. The presence of these traits does not automatically result in criminal behavior.
  7. Personality plays a primary role in explaining crime and delinquency.
  8. Freud’s superego explains an individual’s self-criticism and conscience.
  9. Low conscientiousness and disagreableness are personality dimensions related to antisocial behavior.
  10. Personality traits may help explain why some individuals internalize stress.

Chapter 5: Psychological Factors and Criminal Behavior

Multiple Choice

  1. Terrie Moffitt’s life course persistent offenders often have problems with:
    1. Temperament
    2. Neuropsychological deficits
    3. Lack of good parenting
    4. All of the above
  2. Richard Dugdale examined a family called The ____________ to explain the heritability of low intelligence and proneness to criminal behavior.
    1. Jukes
    2. Goddards
    3. Binets
    4. Jensens
  3. Intelligence studies were often conducted on certain groups of people. Which of the following was not one of them?
    1. Prisoners
    2. Military
    3. Infants
    4. African Americans
  4. The capacity to work in concrete situations is part of the IQ spectrum called:
    1. Verbal ability
    2. Performance IQ
    3. Self-control
    4. Innate ability
  5. Researchers, including Jane Mercer, claim that IQ tests are:
    1. Culturally biased
    2. Unrelated to delinquency
    3. Unreliable
    4. Poor predictors of intelligence
  6. ____________ is considered the father of modern psychotherapy.
    1. Alfred Binet
    2. Sigmund Freud
    3. Travis Hirschi
    4. Gregor Mendel
  7. Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality lacks empirical support. This is most likely because:
      1. It lacks logical consistency
      2. It is untestable
      3. It is not parsimonious
      4. It is tautological
  8. Personality tests such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) asks questions such as “I often was in trouble in school although I did not understand for what reasons (true/false)” to determine delinquent/criminal behavior. This type of questionnaire is problematic because:
    1. It overestimates criminality
    2. It is tautological
    3. It is logically inconsistent
    4. It doesn’t differentiate criminals from non-criminals
  9. One theory of criminal behavior is that lower IQ levels lead to offending as well as other undesirable behaviors. However, IQ theories are limited because:
    1. People with high IQs also commit crimes
    2. It is believed that IQ tests are racially/culturally biased
    3. They do not account for environmental factors that may lead to lower IQ scores
    4. All of the above
  10. The best explanation of the relationship between IQ and delinquency is that it is influenced by:
    1. Environmental factors
    2. Genetics
    3. The super ego
    4. Depression

Chapter 5: Psychological Factors and Criminal Behavior

Short Answer

  1. IQ tests are thought by some to be culturally biased. Why do some researchers believe this? Describe this argument and outline how IQ tests could be made more culturally sensitive.
  2. Personality factors are not often part of empirical tests. Why might this be so? What personality factors could easily be used in research? How would their inclusion add to our understanding of crime?
  3. Jones and colleagues suggest that criminologists have neglected personality in their research and explanations of crime. They describe five factors that shape personality. Name these five factors and describe how each is related to antisocial behaviors.
  4. What are the three components of Freud’s conscious? How do they influence behavior and experiences?
  5. The majority of psychopaths are not criminal. What are the traits of a psychopath? Describe why some psychopaths do not engage in crime.
  6. Is IQ more or less important as a predictor of criminality compared to other explanations of criminal behavior? Why or why not?
  7. Some scholars suggest there are racial differences in IQ. What does the current research tell us about the relationship between race/ethnicity and IQ? Is IQ a good predictor of racial/ethnic differences in criminal behavior? Why or why not?
  8. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and other personality tests are used to assess psychiatric conditions. Should these inventories be routinely administered by schools to predict likelihood of criminal behavior? How would results be used? What concerns might result from such a policy?
  9. Are individuals with certain personality traits attracted to crime? What traits are more prevalent among offending populations?
  10. Terrie Moffitt’s developmental theory has two parts: adolescent limited and life course persistent. Which one explains the age-crime curve? What types of behaviors does the other part explain?

Chapter 6: Durkheim, Anomie, and Modernization

True/False

  1. Anomie is more likely to occur in an environment of normlessness.
  2. According to the anomie perspective, individuals are constantly motivated to commit crime.

  1. Durkheim believed that crime occurs naturally in a society and a society without crime would be pathologically over controlled.
  2. Criminals play no role in maintaining social solidarity in the community.
  3. Social disciplining shapes human behavior by governing through ordinance.
  4. Durkheim’s primary influence on sociology and criminology is his view that human behavior results from free will.
  5. Premodern societies were characterized by high levels of violent crime.
  6. Modernization of society is associated with higher arson rates.
  7. Increases in the prison population have challenged Durkheim’s stability of punishment.
  8. Durkheim believed modernization would be associated with less violent punishments.

Chapter 6: Durkheim, Anomie, and Modernization

Multiple Choice

  1. According to Durkheim, anomie is more likely when society moves from:
    1. Organic to mechanical
    2. Mechanical to organic
    3. Urban to rural
    4. Rural to urban
  2. Anomie is more likely to occur in societies that:
    1. Experience normlessness
    2. Are moving from mechanical (i.e., based on farming) to organic (i.e., not based on farming)
    3. Have a breakdown in rules and regulations
    4. All of the above
  3. The rate of _________________ increases when the economy is at its extremes of growth or decline.
    1. Poverty
    2. Joblessness
    3. Suicide
    4. Violence
  4. The only thing that can limit human appetites for “more” is:
    1. Society
    2. Death
    3. Self-control
    4. Job satisfaction
  5. Another word for anomie is
    1. Normative
    2. Normal
    3. Normotensive
    4. Normlessness
  6. According to Spitzer, developed societies are characterized by:
    1. Lenient punishments
    2. Severe punishments
    3. Absence of punishments
    4. Inconsistent punishments
  7. Researchers suggest that Durkheim’s theory as originally developed is missing a(n):
    1. Explanation of economic inequality
    2. Understanding of rural suicides
    3. Attention to homicide rates
    4. Enumeration of job rates
  8. In the first half of the nineteenth century, sociology was developed by:
    1. August Comte
    2. Socrates
    3. Alfred Blumstein
    4. Emile Durkheim
  9. According to Durkheim’s theory, the presence of crime in a society is:
    1. Abnormal
    2. Organic
    3. Normal
    4. Detrimental
  10. The use of the law to regulate human behavior is referred to as:
    1. Capital punishment
    2. Incarceration
    3. Crime wave
    4. Stability of punishment

Chapter 6: Durkheim, Anomie, and Modernization

Short Answer

        1. Describe the movement from a mechanical society to an organic society. What are the main changes in laws when a society moves towards adoption of an organic structure?
        2. What influence has Durkheim had over the field of sociology, generally, and criminology, more specifically? What is the lineage of Durkheim’s original theoretical contributions to the study of crime?
        3. What is the collective conscience? How is it used today to regulate crime policies and enact laws?
        4. What does it mean for a society to have social solidarity? Why was social solidarity important to Durkheim? What role does it have in the regulation of crime?
        5. One of Durkheim’s main contributions to the study of criminology is his assumption that crime is normal. Do you agree or disagree with this idea? Why or why not?
        6. How does anomie operate in times of economic prosperity compared to times of economic depression? Why would Durkheim expect anomie to function in this way?
        7. Blumstein and Cohen discussed their “stability of punishments” theory in 1973. How does their argument mirror Durkheim’s theory about crime? What similarities does it have to Christie’s explanation of the imprisonment boom?
        8. How is Durkheim’s work present in the modern discussion about illegal drugs and recent state actions to legalize medical and recreational use of marijuana?
        9. Durkheim argued that crime in the modern era would be subject to increased toleration, less severe punishments, and more functional law. Describe what is meant by each of these beliefs and, using a contemporary criminal justice policy as an example, discuss if they have become reality.
        10. How would Durkheim describe the US crime trends in the past 100 years? Using his principles and hypotheses about human nature, assess whether Durkheim’s teachings are still relevant today.

Chapter 7: Strain Theories

True/False

  1. One direct policy implication of strain theory that was implemented was the war on poverty.
  2. According to general strain theory, belief that valued goals cannot be met is a major deviance-producing strain.
  3. Drug use is a legitimate means of coping.
  4. The polity is the priority institution in American society according to institutional anomie theory.
  5. Albert Cohen was an early strain theorist who believed that delinquency occurs because lower class males experience status frustration in comparison to middle class males.
  6. One of the main differences between traditional strain theorists such as Merton, Cloward and Ohlin, and Durkheim and Agnew, who is a modern general strain theorist, is that general strain theory focuses on individual’s relationships with others while traditional strain theorists focus on individual’s relationships with society as a whole.
  7. According to general strain theory, an individual who feels pressured/experiences strain will always resort to committing some delinquent or criminal act.
  8. Institutional anomie theory attempts to explain differences in crime rates between the Northern and Southern parts of the United States.
  9. The cultural norm identified as the “American Dream” balances the importance of family and monetary success.
  10. According to Merton, the cultural imbalance in America explains why there are higher crime rates.

Chapter 7: Strain Theories

Multiple Choice

  1. According to Merton’s traditional strain theory, “anomie” is the:
  2. The disjuncture between positively valued goals and socially approved means
  3. The disjuncture between negatively valued goals and socially approved means
  4. Amount of social capital in a neighborhood
  5. Amount of collective efficacy in a neighborhood
  6. George is an active meth addict. George spends his days looking for a new “fix” by using whatever means necessary. George has given up on his original dreams of going to medical school and getting a job as a doctor. Which of Merton’s modes of adaptation does George’s scenario best fit?
  7. Conformity
  8. Innovation
  9. Rebellion
  10. Retreatism
  11. According to Agnew’s general strain theory, strain results from which of the following:
  12. Blockage of positively valued goals
  13. Presentation of noxious stimuli
  14. Removal of positively valued stimuli
  15. Both A and C
  16. All of the above
  17. Agnew’s general strain theory states that the emotion which drives an individual to commit deviance is
  18. Depression
  19. Anger
  20. Frustration
  21. Excitement
  22. Strain theory supports the idea that crime occurs because of a discrepancy between:
    1. Perception and reality
    2. Aspirations and expectations
    3. Motivation and goals
    4. Ability and goals
  23. Merton believed that there are 5 modes of adaptation to strains. These modes are:
    1. Fundamentalists, forgivers, ritualists, retreatists, and retaliationists
    2. Fundamentalists, forgivers, realists, retreatists, and retaliationists
    3. Conformists, innovators, realists, renovators, and rebels
    4. Conformists, innovators, ritualists, retreatists, and rebels
  24. According to one of Merton’s adaptations to strain, some people accept the goals of society, but reject the means by which to achieve them. These people would be classified as:
    1. Conformists
    2. Fundamentalists
    3. Innovators
    4. Retreatists
  25. One distinctive feature of early strain theories is that they:
    1. Explained crime among lower class males
    2. Explained violent crime
    3. Were empirically supported by research
    4. Were all developed in Europe
  26. Cloward and Ohlin’s theory of strain identified 3 adaptations. These are:
    1. Conformist gangs, ritualistic gangs, and rebellion gangs
    2. Criminal gangs, conflict gangs, and retreatist gangs
    3. Legitimate gangs, illegitimate gangs, and conflict gangs
    4. Delinquent gangs, school gangs, and neighborhood gangs
  27. According to Cohen’s middle class “measuring rod” perspective, most crime is:
  28. Committed by individuals
  29. Purposeless
  30. Financially motivated
  31. A middle-class problem

Chapter 7: Strain Theories

Short Answer

  1. How is institutional anomie theory (IAT) different from other variations of strain theory? What is the basis of IAT and what are its implications for policy?
  2. Institutional anomie is the combination of culture and structure. How does the theory integrate these two components, and how does it add to an explanation of crime?
  3. Why do strain theorists believe that there is a disparity in emphasis on cultural goals among those in the lower classes? What structural barriers perpetuate barriers to goal achievement?
  4. Merton identified five forms of adaptation: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. For each of these, identify the culturally defined goals/ends and structurally defined means. Provide an example scenario using each of the five adaptations, goals/ends, and means for the following situation:

Jillian was accepted to Harvard on early admission. Her grades in high school were excellent and her SAT/ACT scores were the highest in her class. Despite her success, she did not qualify for enough scholarship money and her economic background limits the amount of available financial aid. She may not have the necessary funds to attend the college of her dreams. What are possible ways for her to adapt to this strain?

  1. Cloward and Ohlin believe that gang delinquency is motivated by a status reaction against middle-class values. Why do they believe such strain motivates gang behavior? Is this still true of gang delinquency today?
  2. The War on Poverty was a policy implication of strain theory and aimed to address structural inequalities. Construct a policy initiative to combat modern strains in the US.
  3. Why did strain theories fall out of favor? What led to their resurgence? Are they still relevant today? Why or why not?
  4. What are the three elements of Agnew’s General Strain Theory? How does each element contribute to feelings of strain? Which one do you believe is most important in explaining delinquency or criminal behavior?
  5. Describe a situation in which it is possible for strains to be positive. What about the situation allows for adaptive coping?
  6. How do storylines provide for the incorporation of context into explanations of adaptations to strain?

Chapter 8: Neighborhoods and Crime

True/False

Ecology is the study of the relationships between plants and animals in their natural environment.

According to social disorganization theory, delinquency occurs mostly by individuals, not in groups.

In their theory of race, crime, and urban inequality, Sampson and Wilson (1995) believe that crime flourishes in inner-cities because residents are socially isolated and lack sustained interaction with individuals and institutions that represent mainstream society.

According to social disorganization theory, crime rates increase the further away one is from the center of the city.

Social disorganization and social organization are measured on a continuum; with social disorganization at one end and social organization at the other.

Shaw and McKay found that people, not areas, are crime prone.

Zone II, the business district, is the most stable of all five zones.

Collective efficacy is present in a community with high levels of social cohesion, mutual trust, and informal social controls.

GIS technology has contributed to the study of crime in public housing developments and other public spaces.

Crime is only an urban phenomenon.

Chapter 8: Neighborhoods and Crime

Multiple Choice

  1. Social ecology examines how residents and their communities are:
  2. Independent
  3. Interdependent
  4. Organized
  5. Static
  6. The process of cultural/ethnic groups taking over neighborhoods is called:
  7. Invasion, dominance, succession
  8. Invasion, uprooted, overthrown
  9. Business, residential, industrial
  10. Seeding, sowing, reaping
  11. In 1942, Shaw and McKay developed a theory to explain differential delinquency rates in neighborhoods. This theory is called:
    1. Social disorganization
    2. Collective efficacy
    3. Broken windows
    4. Rational choice
  12. The Chicago Area Project was a program that evolved “for the prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency” (Cullen & Agnew, 2006; pg 95). This program stemmed from which of the following theories?
    1. Social disorganization
    2. Collective efficacy
    3. Broken windows
    4. Routine activity
  13. Sampson and Wilson put forth a theory of race, crime and urban inequality. In this theory, they believe that the following concept(s) is(are) important in an explanation of crime:
    1. Structure
    2. Culture
    3. Structure and culture
    4. Neither structure nor culture
  14. Collective efficacy theory believes that the following concepts influence crime rates:
    1. Social cohesion and informal social control
    2. Poverty and population heterogeneity
    3. Informal social control and culture
    4. Culture and structure
  15. Social disorganization theory is based on which of the following theories:
    1. Biology
    2. Psychology
    3. Immunology
    4. Ecology
  16. The Chicago School of criminological thought is based on the following theorist:
  17. Cesare Lombroso
  18. Robert Sampson
  19. Charles Darwin
  20. Émile Durkheim
  21. According to social disorganization theory, the location in the city most likely to have high crime is the:
    1. Central business district
    2. Zone in transition
    3. Working-class zone
    4. Residential zone
    5. Commuter zone
  22. Skogan’s theory of disorder and decline built upon which theory:
    1. Routine activities
    2. Broken windows
    3. Rational choice
    4. Psychopathology

Chapter 8: Neighborhoods and Crime

Short Answer

  1. Why do social disorganization theorists believe that areas rather than individuals are crime prone?
  2. What does it mean for an area to be socially disorganized? Describe a time when you encountered an area that had these attributes. How did this experience make you feel?
  3. How did early neighborhood scholars demonstrate the applicability of social disorganization theory? What two research methods were primarily used to quantitatively and qualitatively assess the extent of delinquency in Chicago?
  4. Describe a policy or practice at the neighborhood level to reduce criminal activity and delinquency and improve living conditions. What will the policy or practice aim to achieve? How will this be accomplished?
  5. What critiques did Kornhauser offer on Shaw and McKay’s theory of social disorganization? How did she extend the original theory? Do you consider this to be an improvement on the original theory? Why or why not?
  6. Why does collective efficacy fail to explain individual level criminal behavior consistently?
  7. Moving to Opportunity (MTO) and HOPE IV were residential mobility experiments to relocate people to better neighborhoods. What were the main findings of studies on these programs? Were they effective at reducing crime? What other outcomes were achieved because of residential mobility?
  8. Why has most research and theory development been situated in urban areas? Can current theories be used to explain rural crime?
  9. How are routine activities essential to our understanding of neighborhood explanations of crime and delinquency?
  10. What does it mean for an area to experience concentrated disadvantage? What must be changed about an area for it to no longer be considered disadvantaged?

Chapter 9: Learning Theories

True/False

  1. Unlike classical theories, learning theories assume that motivation to commit crime is variable (i.e., not everyone is motivated to commit crime).
  2. According to learning theories, humans are innately bad.
  3. The key proposition in Sutherland’s theory was that a person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law.
  4. Albert Bandura is a social psychologist who believed that individuals learn behavior by modeling others.
  5. One component of learning theories is that behavior is not reinforced or rewarded by others.
  6. According to operant conditioning theory, people’s behavior is influenced and shaped

by punishments and rewards and it is these punishments and rewards that teach people how to behave.

  1. According to the subculture of violence, some subcultures value violence.
  2. One assumption of subcultural theories is that violence is expected at all times,

regardless of the situation.

  1. According to Anderson’s subcultural theory, people adopt one code for dealing with violence and stick with it for life.
  2. The southern subculture of violence theory is an attempt to explain difference in levels of White male violence between southern and northern states.

Chapter 9: Learning Theories

Multiple Choice

  1. Crime, like other behaviors is learned. This way of thinking about crime is in line with which theory?
    1. Social disorganization
    2. Differential association
    3. Strain theory
    4. Marxist theory
  2. The “father” of differential association and modern criminology is:
    1. Max Weber
    2. W. I. Thomas
    3. Edwin Sutherland
    4. Charles Darwin
  3. One of the early criticisms of differential association theory is that it is:
    1. Difficult to operationalize “definitions”
    2. Not broad in scope
    3. Challenging to determine causal ordering
    4. All of the above
  4. Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning shows that:
    1. Punishment will increase a behavior and reinforcement will decrease a behavior
    2. Punishment will decrease a behavior and reinforcement will increase a behavior
    3. Both A & B
    4. None of the above
  5. Ron Akers reformulated and expanded Sutherland’s differential association theory. Akers retains the concept of differential association. Which of the following concepts does he add to it?
    1. Definitions of the law
    2. Differential reinforcement
    3. Imitation
    4. All of the above
  6. According to Akers, differential association with persons who hold definitions favorable to violations of the law have four essential elements. These elements are:
    1. Duration, frequency, social bonding, and popularity
    2. Priority, duration, frequency, and dependence
    3. Frequency, intensity, social bonding, and peer pressure
    4. Priority, duration, frequency, and intensity
  7. According to early learning theories (e.g., differential association):
    1. Delinquent behavior comes before association with delinquent peers
    2. Association with delinquent peers comes before delinquency
    3. It is unclear whether delinquent behavior or peers comes first
    4. None of the above
  8. The socialization model under contemporary learning theories suggests that:
    1. Delinquent peers socialize others to become delinquent
    2. People become delinquent because crime is fun
    3. Delinquent peers select other delinquents to befriend
    4. None of the above
  9. The concept of reciprocal feedback effects, as it pertains to learning theory, assumes that:
    1. Association with delinquent peers will scare youth away from crime
    2. Involvement in delinquent behavior results from association with delinquent peers
    3. Association with delinquent peers influences involvement in delinquent behavior which, in turn, increases the association with delinquent peers
    4. None of the above
  10. According to Walter Miller’s focal concerns theory, the values believed to be prevalent among lower-class males are:
    1. Fate, Authority, Trouble, Trepidation, Exhilaration, and Smartness
    2. Fate, Autonomy, Trouble, Toughness, Excitement, and Smartness
    3. Fatalism, Authority, Trouble, Toughness, Excitement, and Smartness
    4. Fate, Autonomy, Trouble, Trepidation, Excitement, and Skillfulness


Chapter 9: Learning Theories

Short Answer

How are learning theories in criminology an extension of psychological theories? Which psychological theories are rooted in learning?

What is Tarde’s Law of Imitation? How can the three laws of imitation be used to describe the learning process?

What does the phrase “differential association” mean?

What are the nine propositions of Sutherland’s differential association theory? Which one do you believe is the most important in explaining criminal behavior from the perspective of learning theory? Defend your position.

How does learning theory differ from classical criminological theories? Specifically, how are their assumptions about human nature different? What similarities do they have?

What was the Bobo Doll experiment? What did this experiment teach us about human behavior? How do its findings translate to criminal behavior?

Does learning theory support the nature or nurture side of the nature versus nurture debate in criminology? How might it be possible for learning theory to support both nature and nurture?

Do you believe the Glueck’s suggestion that “birds of a feather, flock together”? Why or why not? Is it possible for some youth to have delinquent friends and not become delinquents themselves? What conditions would need to be present for this to happen?

Anderson’s Code of the Streets explains urban youth violence. How could this theory be applied to rural youth violence? What elements would remain the same and which would need to change?

What are the historical precursors to the development of the subculture of violence theory? Are there other experiences in the American experience that contribute to or reduce the subculture of violence?

Chapter 10: Control Theories

True/False

  1. Self-control is obtained mainly through socialization/child rearing occurring within the family.
  2. According to self-control theory, people with low self-control will definitely commit crime or deviant behaviors at some point in their lives.
  3. Self-control theory assumes that there is an underlying propensity to engage in crime if people have low self-control.
  4. Control theories began with Travis Hirschi’s social bond theory.
  5. Hirschi found that social bond theory only applies to Whites.
  6. Deviant peers increase delinquent behavior when social bonds are weakened.
  7. There is a lot of empirical support for involvement in conventional activities component of social bond theory.
  8. Drift can occur when youth are free from social controls.
  9. Persons with low self-control tend to be impulsive, insensitive, physical, and risk-takers.
  10. Self-control is developed by learning.

Chapter 10: Control Theories

Multiple Choice

  1. The most important social bond in Hirschi’s theory is:
    1. Attachment
    2. Commitment
    3. Involvement
    4. Belief
  2. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) developed self-control theory. This theory supports the notion that people with:
      1. Fewer social bonds will be more likely to engage in crime
      2. Low self-control will be more likely to engage in crime
      3. High self-control will be more likely to engage in crime
      4. A lot of social bonds will be more likely to engage in crime
  3. Control theories ask the following question:
      1. Who implements the laws that determine what is/is not a crime?
      2. Why don’t people engage in crime?
      3. Why do people engage in crime?
      4. Why are criminals sanctioned?
  4. Hirschi’s social bond theory has four components. They are:
      1. Attachment, involvement, peer influence, and parental monitoring
      2. Commitment, involvement, peer influence, and self-efficacy
      3. Attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief
      4. Involvement, containment, conflict, and belief
  5. Control theories (i.e., social control and self-control) have the following assumption about human nature:
    1. Humans are innately self-interested
    2. Humans are innately good
    3. Humans are a blank slate
    4. Humans have free will
  6. Jackson Toby (1957) coined the term “stakes in conformity” which are related to attachments to conventional society (e.g., legitimate jobs, prosocial people). This concept pertains to which theory?
      1. Labeling
      2. Control
      3. Feminist
      4. Integrated
  7. In their self-control theory, Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) differentiate between crime and criminality. Criminality is:
      1. The act of force or fraud
      2. The propensity to use force or fraud
    1. The tendency to avoid force or fraud
      1. None of the above
  8. Control theory has its roots in which discipline?
    1. Biology
    2. Psychology
    3. Ecology
    4. Sociology
  9. Matza believes delinquents are mostly law-abiding. When they engage in criminal behaviors, they are engaging in:
  10. Drift
  11. Differentiation
  12. Compulsive behavior
  13. Commitment
  14. Which of the following social bonds is necessary for internal control to develop?
    1. Attachment
    2. Commitment
    3. Belief
    4. Involvement

Chapter 10: Control Theories

Short Answer

  1. Parental training is one policy implication of self-control theory. Describe a parenting program that would support the development of self-control among children.
  2. Describe the evolution of control theory. How has the theory changed over time? What components have remained the same? Has the theory improved, or are the changes insignificant?
  3. Why are delinquents and criminals not committing crime all the time? What prevents such behavior?
  4. What are Matza’s five techniques of neutralization? How do these rationalizations of criminal and delinquent behavior justify the behavior to the offender?
  5. Much support has been found for Hirschi’s constructs attachment and commitment. Define and provide an example of attachment and commitment. Why are these two constructs stronger predictors of social control than involvement and belief?
  6. Later in his career Hirschi moved away from social control and embraced self-control. How are these two theories different? How are they alike? Which one has stronger empirical support? Describe the research findings for this theory.
  7. What is a general theory of crime? What types of crimes does this theory attempt to explain? How is it different from other theories of crime, such as strain and learning theories?
  8. What are “stakes in conformity”? Name four stakes in conformity you experience in your daily life. Do these stakes keep you from engaging in delinquent or criminal behavior? Why or why not? If these stakes were not present, would your answer change?
  9. What was Nye’s main contribution to control theory? How did this move forward the development of control theory?
  10. Is social control theory a good explanation of violent crimes? Describe a situation in which a violent crime would be committed or prevented using the tenets of social control theory.

Chapter 11: Conflict Criminology

True / False

  1. George Vold elaborated on Thorsten Sellin’s culture conflict theory by stating that rather than a conflict occurring between immigrant and established cultures, conflict was occurring between various interest groups.
  2. The main difference between conflict and Marxist/radical theories is that conflict theories focus on the struggle for power among groups, and Marxist/radical theories focus on the division of labor and ownership of the means of production among social classes.
  3. According to the consensus view of society, laws reflect the values shared by members of the community.

4. Interests ultimately determine society’s values.

  1. Conduct norms are defined as primary cultural conflicts.
  2. Social order is a reflection of social consensus.
  3. Disorganized authorities have the most power and sophistication.
  4. Quinney’s conflict theory only explains a portion of crime.
  5. Political power adds legitimacy to definitions of crime.
  6. According to Black, law is enacted most often between intimates.

Chapter 11: Conflict Criminology

Multiple Choice

  1. Richard Quinney said that there are two types of crimes; one is “crimes of accommodation”. Crimes of accommodation are those that are committed by:
      1. The lower class
      2. The elite, ruling class
      3. Both A& B
      4. Neither A nor B
  2. One possible policy implication of conflict theories is to:
      1. Criminalize non-violent crimes (e.g., drug use, prostitution)
      2. Equalize the distribution of wealth, power, and status among society
      3. Increase capitalist ideology
      4. None of the above
  3. The most predominantly accepted view about how society works is:
      1. Conflict
      2. Marxist/radical
      3. Critical
      4. Consensus
  4. According to consensus theorists, the role of the state is to:
      1. Mediate conflicts
      2. Reduce peace
      3. Encourage conflicts
      4. Incite rebellion
  5. Groups are formed to further interests through:
      1. Mediation
      2. Collective action
      3. Protest
      4. Loyalty
  6. Lawmaking and law enforcement are a function of the:
      1. Political nature of government
      2. Minority power groups
      3. Organic society
      4. Balance between group and state interests
  7. According to conflict theorists, laws reflect the views of:
      1. The public interest
      2. Those with political and economic power
      3. The majority of residents
      4. Politicians
  8. Black’s theory of law argues that the quantity of law:
      1. Is stable across place
      2. Varies over time
      3. Spikes during election years
      4. Reflects public opinion
  9. Minority threat theory suggests that increased social controls in an area are the result of:
      1. Increased crime rates
      2. Increased police presence
      3. Increased political influence
      4. Increased number of minorities
  10. Variables not relevant to criminal justice case processing are called:
      1. Extra-legal factors
      2. Offense characteristics
      3. Legal definitions
      4. Accumulation of effects

Chapter 11: Conflict Criminology

Short Answer

  1. Describe Quinney’s segments of society and their different normative systems. Why do some segments commit more crime? What does this demonstrate about the development of laws and norms?
  2. Chambliss and Seidman state that “the power of the State is itself the principal prize in the perpetual conflict that is society.” Using concrete examples, illustrate how this statement was evidenced in the criminal justice system in the 1970s and is present today.
  3. How is Black’s theory of the behavior law applied to crime victims? How can law be a therapeutic agent for justice-involved individuals?
  4. Black states that “law is social control.” Control theories were covered in-depth in Chapter 10. If law is indeed social control, how do conflict theories differ from control theories? Could control and conflict theories be examined jointly or are they best discussed separately? Why or why not?
  5. Black proposes to keep social information from criminal justice actors responsible for determining guilt and punishment. Describe how this policy could be implemented in the modern criminal justice system. What are the benefits and drawbacks to this type of system?
  6. The authors of the text propose a unified conflict theory of crime. Name the five components identified and describe how they comport to the definition of conflict theories.
  7. Evaluate the crack versus cocaine debate as an example of conflict theory in action. What was the primary issue in how crack and cocaine cases were processed? What was the role of disparity in demonstrating differences in the application of law?
  8. Using concrete examples from the criminal justice system (e.g., arrest, conviction, corrections), describe the differences between “differential offending” and “differential processing”. How do these differences perpetuate inequality?
  9. What is the minority threat hypothesis? Evaluate the evidence from studies on minority threat hypothesis. Does the evidence support the presence of a minority threat in the US?
  10. Illustrate how society perpetuates the power and influence of a select few. Describe how this influence translates to differential enforcement of laws.

Chapter 12: Marxist, Postmodern, and Green Criminology

True / False

  1. One of the main pillars of critical theories is that they question the social consensus aspect of laws and what is defined as a crime and inappropriate conduct.
  2. According to critical theories, those who control the resources in a society determine what behaviors are defined as crime.
  3. Critical theories focus on the individual causes of criminal behavior.
  4. Critical theories became popular in the 1970s in response to perceived abuses of state power in the 1960s.
  5. Instrumental Marxism suggests that the state is a tool used to protect the interest of the capitalists.
  6. According to Willem Bonger, crime among the ruling class is punished while crime among the lower classes is overlooked.
  7. Green criminology presently relies on quantitative data to inform public policy.
  8. There are two groups under capitalist societies – the owners of the means of production and wage laborers.
  9. Marxist theories generally argue that crimes are the result of anomie.
  10. Postmodernism argues that that knowledge is mediated by language.

Chapter 12: Marxist, Postmodern, and Green Criminology

Multiple Choice

  1. Which of the following types of theories tries to explain why some acts are considered to be crimes while others are not?
  2. Differential association
  3. Critical theory
  4. Anomie theory
  5. Strain theory
  6. According to critical theories, laws are the result of:
  7. Cultural differences
  8. Political conflict and coercion
  9. Consensus among society
  10. All of the above
  11. At the heart of critical theories is the concern with:
    1. Cultural differences
    2. Social inequality
    3. Structural inequality
    4. Frustration of wants
  12. Which of the following theories addresses how crimes and laws are generated?
    1. Differential association
    2. Anomie theory
    3. Institutional anomie theory
    4. Critical theory
  13. Which of the following statements is NOT true about critical theories?
    1. Critical theories favor the conflict view of society
    2. Those with the least power in society determine the laws and rules
    3. Crime is explained by inequality in society
    4. Critical theories are economic explanations of crime
  14. Critical theories are most associated with the work of:
  15. Durkheim
  16. Marx
  17. Bernard
  18. Cooley
  19. Which of the following is NOT an assumption of critical theories?
    1. Crime is the result of the organization of society
    2. Examine law making, interpretation and enforcement
    3. Legal definitions of crime are rejected
    4. Criminals are fundamentally different from noncriminals
  20. Under Marxist/radical theories, ____________ is the root cause of crime:
  21. Communism
  22. Capitalism
  23. Socialism
  24. Feudalism
  25. Critical theorists believe that the criminal justice system, including laws, operate to benefit:
    1. The proletariat
    2. The bourgeoisie
    3. The lumpen-proletariat
    4. None of the above
  26. Under Marxist/radical theory, crimes of the elite are thought to serve what purpose?
    1. Utilitarian action to appease frustration of wants
    2. Coping mechanism in response to strain
    3. Domination/oppression of lower class
    4. None of the above

Chapter 12: Marxist, Postmodern, and Green Criminology

Short Answer

  1. Describe the emergence of green criminology as a critical theory of crime. What are the theoretical foundations of this new area? How are researchers gathering evidence on this topic? What policy implications could emerge from this line of inquiry?
  2. What is meant by the term “lumpenproletariat”? How is it used to describe criminal behavior?
  3. Who was Karl Marx and what was his indirect contribution to criminological theory?
  4. Why is capitalism believed to be the root of crime in critical theories? How are crimes different in other types of political and economic systems?
  5. What does the social contract represent in critical theories? How does its presence or absence explain crime?
  6. Bonger argued that capitalism encourages selfishness and less concern for others while greed among the poor is criminalized. How would crime emerge in a different political and economic system?
  7. Describe the resurgence of Marxist criminology in the 1970s. What led to this reemergence? Is Marxist criminology still relevant today?
  8. What are the differences between simplistic instrumental and complex structuralistic views of criminal law and criminal justice?
  9. What is left realist criminology? How does this perspective differ from traditional Marxist criminology?
  10. Describe how Marxist theories can be applied to policing practices. What role could community residents have in implementing these practices?

Chapter 13: Gender and Crime

True / False

  1. The strongest correlate of crime is race.
  2. Most criminological theories focus on female perpetrated crimes.
  3. Female crime rates are higher than male crime rates.
  4. Gender is a social construct.
  5. Traditional criminological theories are male-oriented.
  6. The National Crime Survey shows that the violent crime rate among women has surpassed that of men in the past 30 years.
  7. A feminist approach to criminological theory attempts to address the stereotypical ways women are portrayed in explanations of crime.
  8. Traditional criminological theories fail to address gender differences in treatment by criminal justice system.
  9. Theorists believed women’s liberation would decrease female offending.
  10. Traditional theories cannot explain any female involvement in crime.

Chapter 13: Gender and Crime

Multiple Choice

  1. Traditionally, men are treated less harshly than women accused of:
  2. Rape
  3. Murder
  4. Sexual crimes
  5. Property crimes
  6. Rita James Simon argues that criminality among women increased over time because of:
  7. Opportunity
  8. Necessity
  9. Aggression
  10. Abuse
  11. ___________________ is a feminist school of thought that focuses attention on women’s issues by improving women’s opportunities in society.
  12. Socialist feminism
  13. Critical feminism
  14. Liberal feminism
  15. Women’s liberation
  16. Socialist feminism argues that the male-female relationship is governed by:
  17. Economic production
  18. Biology
  19. Sexual division of labor
  20. Capitalism
  21. Social feminists believe an egalitarian society is possible after women:
  22. Own the means of production
  23. Have control of their own bodies
  24. Comprise 75% of the workplace
  25. Commit 50% of crime
  26. The gender ratio problem compares women’s experiences to that of men and suggests women:
  27. Commit less crime
  28. Are arrested less
  29. Receive shorter sentences
  30. Serve more probation
  31. Power-control theory suggests that disproportionate control by parents over daughters compared to sons will result in a:
  32. Balanced family
  33. Egalitarian family
  34. Matriarchal family
  35. Patriarchal family
  36. “Doing gender” is an approach to understanding female criminality that examines:
  37. Context
  38. Gender roles
  39. Discrimination
  40. Patriarchy
  41. Liberal feminism seeks to increase attention paid to:
  42. Female homeownership
  43. Patriarchy
  44. Women’s rights
  45. Gender identity
  46. Differential association explanations of the gender-ratio differences in crime suggest:
  47. Girls are taught definitions favorable to crime
  48. Boys are taught definitions favorable to crime
  49. Girls and boys are both taught definitions favorable to crime
  50. There is no gender-ratio difference in crime

Chapter 13: Gender and Crime

Short Answer

  1. How has the term patriarchy been used by scholars to describe women’s roles in society? Describe how these descriptions explain crime.
  2. What is Marxist feminist criminology? What are the theoretical assumptions of this perspective? How does it explain societal responses to female crime?
  3. What are the basic assumptions of power-control theory? How does this theory combine concerns for gender and traditional components of control theory?
  4. What is the role of victimization in female offending?
  5. Describe the role the family has in shaping female offending. Is the driving force based in strain or learning/differential association theory? Defend your position.
  6. A different way of approaching gender and crime is to ask why male crime rates are so high. How do traditional criminological theories explain male’s disproportionate involvement in crime?
  7. What is the scientific evidence on the role of testosterone and the crime ratio problem? Is the difference in testosterone levels a good explanation of differences in male-female criminality?
  8. Why is gender a major and consistent correlate of crime? Which theory best explains this “fact” of crime?
  9. Why are more males involved in gangs and gang behavior?
  10. Is the gender gap shrinking? What does the research evidence suggest about contemporary crime rates among women?

Chapter 14: Developmental and Life-Course Theories

True / False

  1. Cognitive shifts resulting in the development of a prosocial identity are used by Maruna (2001) to explain desistence among offenders.
  2. Life course theory uses age to account for change in offending.
  3. One key benefit of life course theories is that they take into account change over time; they’re dynamic, not static.
  4. Developmental theories are mainly typological.
  5. Laub and Sampson’s theory of age-graded informal social control can only explain adult offending.
  6. Developmental theories assume that criminal behavior is caused by the same factors over the entire lifespan.
  7. A criminal career is plagued by frequent and serious crimes.
  8. Interactional theory combines control and strain theory to explain delinquency.
  9. Context can influence whether someone desists from crime.
  10. Institutions such as military service and marriage may act as informal social controls to facilitate desistance.

Chapter 14: Developmental and Life-Course Theories

Multiple Choice

  1. Which of the following is NOT a key concept in Sampson and Laub’s informal social control theory?
      1. Transitions
      2. Trouble
      3. Trajectories
      4. Turning points
  2. Sampson and Laub (1993) examined informal social control and crime. One of their hypotheses is that:
      1. Criminality is set by age 8
      2. Crime is a result of low self-control
      3. Informal social bonds are stable over time
      4. Informal social bonds can change over time
  3. Terrie Moffitt’s life course persistent offenders often have problems with:
    1. Temperament
    2. Neuropsychological deficits
    3. Lack of good parenting
    4. All of the above
  4. According to the age-crime curve, crime:
      1. Is stable across the life course, never changing
      2. Increases as individuals age, then decreases around ages 15-24
      3. Increases over time and only ends when criminals die
      4. Is unpredictable
  5. Terrie Moffitt’s developmental theory is an example of a:
    1. Taxonomy/typology
    2. General theory
    3. Paradigm
    4. Tautology
  6. The life course paradigm can explain which of the following?
      1. Onset of offending
      2. Continuance of offending
      3. Desistance from offending
      4. All of the above
  7. One policy implication for developmental theories is:
    1. Enhancing protective factors such as parental monitoring
    2. Increase use of incarceration
    3. Incarcerate people until they age out
    4. Eugenics
  8. According to developmental theories, researchers need to examine individuals:
      1. Longitudinally
      2. Cross-sectionally
      3. Focus groups
      4. Surveys
  9. Which of the following is NOT a key concept in life course theories (according to Elder, 1998)?
      1. Agency
      2. Timing
      3. Self-control
      4. Linked lives
      5. Context
  10. _____________________ is the assumption that some people are more prone to commit crime, while others are less prone.
    1. Criminal careers
    2. Criminal propensity
    3. Life course
    4. Self-control

Chapter 14: Developmental and Life-Course Theories

Short Answer

  1. How does the life course paradigm explain onset, continuance, and desistance from offending?
  2. Name three challenges life course persistent offenders experience that are believed to contribute to their criminal behavior. Why are these challenges precursors to criminality? Can they be addressed/altered to reduce risk?
  3. What is the difference between a career criminal and a criminal career? Are they mutually exclusive or is there some overlap?
  4. Assess the viability of Thornberry’s Interactional Theory. Does it have the attributes of a good theory? Describe an empirical test of this theory.
  5. What are the turning points and transitions in Sampson and Laub’s age-graded theory of informal social control? How do they differ, and what is their role in criminal offending onset and desistance?
  6. What is selective incapacitation and which perspective supports its use? What are the arguments against selective incapacitation?
  7. Describe Tremblay’s perspective on the development of physical aggression. How does this mirror the age-crime curve argument?
  8. Is the developmental perspective an individual theory, or a way to frame our understanding of existing theories?
  9. What is the role of agency in desistance from crime? Can agency also explain criminal behavior?
  10. How are Sampson and Laub’s age-graded informal social control theory and Hirschi’s social bond theory similar? How are they different? Which one is a better explanation of criminal behavior? Why?

Chapter 15: Integrated Theories

True/False

  1. Integrated theories pit two or more theories against each other in an empirical test for accuracy.
  2. A concern with integrated theories is the potential for competing assumptions about human behavior.
  3. Integration is a way to increase the number of criminological theories.
  4. Integrating theories can require modifications of the original theories being integrated.
  5. Under Colvin’s coercion theory, coercion is said to occur when one is compelled to act in a certain way through direct force or intimidation from others through the pressure of impersonal economic or social forces.
  6. Tittle argues that a theory should answer a broad range of deviant behaviors.
  7. Social support should increase crime, while coercion reduces criminal behavior.
  8. Restorative justice policies align with control balance theory.
  9. Micro theories are essential to the explanation of crime rates.
  10. Agnew’s general theory is not testable because the sheer number of variables could overwhelm a statistical package.

Chapter 15: Integrated Theories

Multiple Choice

  1. Elliott and colleagues integrate which theories to explain drug use?
      1. Labeling, social learning, gender
      2. Anomie, self-control, differential association
      3. Deterrence, ecology, cultural deviance
      4. Strain, control, social learning
  2. An argument in favor of integration suggests that falsification failed to:
  3. Increase the number of criminological theories
  4. Increase explained variance
  5. Reduce crime through policy
  6. Determine the cause of crime
  7. Elliott argues that theoretical competition is unnecessary because:
  8. Different theories explain different variances in crime
  9. All theories explain why crime occurs
  10. No one theory is accurate
  11. Predictive power is tied to parsimony
  12. John Braithwaite indicates that there are two types of shaming. These are:
      1. Reintegrative and disintegrative
      2. Disintegrative and stigmatizing
      3. Stigmatizing and wholesome
      4. Remorse and conforming
  13. According to Colvin’s theory of crime and coercion, individuals are more likely to engage in predatory street crime if they experience:
    1. Coercive / erratic control
    2. Non-coercive / erratic control
    3. Coercive / consistent control
    4. Non-coercive / consistent control
  14. Tittle’s control balance theory proposes that crime is a function of:
  15. Internal self-control
  16. External social controls
  17. Informal social controls over the life course
  18. Control exerted by others and self
  19. Policy implications from the integration of social support and coercive control theories include:
  20. Improving parenting effectiveness
  21. Decreasing association with deviant peers
  22. Increasing self-control
  23. Eliminating drug use
  24. Bernard and Snipes argue that theories should be evaluated in terms of their:
  25. Validity
  26. Usefulness
  27. Reliability
  28. Parsimony
  29. A newer approach to assessing theories, _______________, relies on structured probabilities.
  30. Risk factor
  31. Falsification
  32. Competition
  33. Integration
  34. Bernard and Snipes argue there are two types of theories, individual difference theories and:
  35. Micro level theories
  36. Structure/process theories
  37. Cultural deviance theories
  38. Integrated theories

Chapter 15: Integrated Theories

Short Answer

  1. How do integrated theories propose to reduce the number of viable theories in criminology?
  2. Why do some criminologists prefer falsification to integration?
  3. What are the six types of deviance according to Tittle’s control balance theory? How are they defined (provide examples)? Are these reasonable constructs to measure deviance?
  4. Design an integrated theory to explain a specific type of crime (e.g., drug use, prostitution) or a general theory of crime. Which theories are essential to include in your theory? Which theories would not add explanatory value?
  5. Are micro-level theories or macro-level theories better at explaining crime? Pick a theory at each level (micro and macro) and describe how an integrated theory that incorporates both would explain criminal behavior or desistance from crime.
  6. What are the similarities and differences of individual theories and structure/process theories of crime?
  7. Describe the different levels addressed by Integrated Systems Theory. How is this integrated theory different from the individual components it combines in a unified theory? What are the challenges in testing this theory?
  8. How is a risk factor approach different from traditional criminological theory explanations of crime?
  9. Is integration a viable way to reduce the number of theories in criminology? Defend your position. What alternatives exist?
  10. Why does theory falsification require an “all or nothing” approach?

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Created Date:
Aug 21, 2025
Chapter Name:
Test Bank Theoretical Criminology 8e Snipes
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Jeffrey B. Snipes

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