1e Donaldson Test bank Philosophy Asking Questions 1e Stich - Assessment Bank | Philosophy Asking Qs 1e Stich by Stephen Stich. DOCX document preview.
Chapter 1
1. A “normative question” deals with
a) justice and injustice.
b) beauty.
c) right and wrong.
d) the customary norms of society.
2. Philosophy examines the basic assumptions of
a) science.
b) politics.
c) art.
d) everything.
3. Socrates was condemned to death for
a) corrupting the youth.
b) refusing to go to war.
c) siding with the Spartans in the Peloponnesian War.
d) mocking the Eleusinian Mysteries.
4. When doing philosophy it is best support your point with
a) arguments.
b) appeals to authority.
c) Holy Scripture.
d) the sayings of great philosophers.
5. It has been claimed that philosophy is dead because
a) all the questions of philosophy have been answered.
b) since there are no answers to the questions of philosophy, it is pointless to ask them.
c) modern science has replaced philosophy as the pursuit of truth.
d) philosophy is useless for social change.
6. Everyone is compelled to think philosophically at some point in his or her life because
a) we inevitably face questions about how to live.
b) philosophy classes are required for earning a college degree.
c) social progress is impossible without philosophic theories.
d) every question in human life is ultimately a philosophic question.
7. A pluralist society is one in which
a) many, rather than few, people live together.
b) people with widely differing worldviews live together.
c) the wise philosophers rule over the ignorant many.
d) no opinions are better than any others.
8. Even if philosophy can’t answer a question it takes up, it can still be useful by
a) making clear the limitations of one’s knowledge.
b) achieving a deeper understanding of other people’s views.
c) providing a better understanding of each other.
d) All of the above
Essay Questions
1. Explain what makes a question “philosophical.”
2. What are the possible benefits (or costs) to thinking philosophically?
Chapter 2
1. A philosophical argument refers to a(n)
a) dispute with someone of a different opinion.
b) attempt to justify a conclusion by rational means.
c) debate where winning is most important.
d) quarrel about right and wrong.
2. Premises are
a) statements that someone assumes while making her case for the conclusion.
b) the starting points of an argument.
c) certain truths all persons know.
d) All of the above
e) a and b
3. Which of the following words often marks the conclusion of a philosophical argument?
a) Because
b) Therefore
c) Everyone knows
d) However
4. Which of the following words often indicates a premise of a philosophical argument?
a) Because
b) Therefore
c) Everyone knows
d) However
5. When evaluating an argument, it is important consider the following question(s):
a) Are the premises of the argument interesting?
b) To what extent do the premises support the conclusion?
c) Who made the argument?
d) All of the above
6. A bad argument has a true conclusion.
a) Always
b) Sometimes
c) Never
7. A deductively valid argument is one in which
a) the premises are true.
b) the conclusion is true.
c) Both a and b
d) if the premises are true, conclusion is necessarily true.
8. An argument is sound if it is
a) valid and has true premises.
b) valid and has a true conclusion.
c) invalid but has true premises.
d) invalid but has a true conclusion.
9. Enumerative induction proceeds by
a) enumerating all the instances of a group to prove something about that group.
b) identifying a pattern in a sample and extending that pattern to other cases.
c) assuming certain premises to prove some conclusion.
d) rejecting certain premises to disprove some conclusion.
10. An abductive argument is one in which one starts with
a) a number of observations and one puts forward an explanation for them that is better than any available alternative explanations.
b) true premises and draws the conclusion that follows from them.
c) a true conclusion and determines which premises would be needed to deduce it.
d) All of the above
11. What sort or argument is the following?
There is a used bowl, an open carton of milk, and an open box of cereal on the kitchen table. Therefore, my roommate overslept.
a) Deductive
b) Rhetorical
c) Abductive
d) Fallacious
12. Many philosophers believe that scientific theories are commonly supported by which sort of argument?
a) Deductive
b) Rhetorical
c) Abductive
d) Fallacious
13. Which of the following is a multistep argument?
a) (1) All frogs are amphibians. (Premise)
(2) Fernando is a frog. (Premise)
(3) Fernando is an amphibian. (Conclusion)
b) (1) All frogs are amphibians. (Premise)
(2) Fernando is a frog. (Premise)
(3) Fernando is an amphibian. (Conclusion from 1, 2)
(4) All amphibians are invertebrates. (Premise)
(5) Fernando is an invertebrate. (Conclusion from 3, 4)
c) Both a and b
d) Neither a nor b
14. Compatibilists believe that
a) determinism is compatible with free will.
b) normative ethics is compatible with democracy.
c) normative ethics is compatible with atheism.
d) logic is compatible with the Bible.
15. The conclusion of an argument is
a) a rationally justified assertion.
b) the final words of an argument.
c) a necessarily true assertion.
d) one’s particular opinion on an issue.
16. In what sort of argument does the truth of the premises of an argument guarantee the truth of the conclusion?
a) A deductively valid argument
b) An inductively valid argument
c) Both a and b
d) Neither a nor b
17. Which theory claims that the laws of physics fix the whole of the rest of history?
a) Indeterminism
b) Determinism
c) Hedonism
d) Physicalism
18. Inference to the best explanation is also called
a) abduction.
b) deduction.
c) explanationism.
d) reduction.
19. The assertions taken for granted in an argument are called
a) conclusions.
b) premises.
c) deductions.
d) knowledge.
20. Which of the following is not a legitimate form of argument?
a) Abduction
b) Deduction
c) Induction
d) Reduction
Essay Questions
1. Explain what a formal argument is, including both its parts and their relation to each other.
2. Explain the difference(s) between deductive, inductive, and abductive arguments.
Chapter 3
1. Evidential arguments claim to be
a) true.
b) false.
c) useful.
d) irrelevant.
2. Pragmatic arguments claim to be
a) true.
b) false.
c) useful.
d) irrelevant.
3. An atheist believes
a) God exists.
b) God exists, but is not omniscient.
c) God doesn’t exist.
d) no one can know whether or not God exists.
4. Which of the following is not one of the main attributes of the God of the Western philosophical tradition?
a) God is omnipotent.
b) God is omniscient.
c) God is perfectly good.
d) God is a trinity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost.
5. A causal chain is a sequence of events
a) where each event in the sequence is caused by the previous event in the sequence.
b) where all events in the sequence are caused by one initial cause.
c) without any unique cause.
d) linked together in an unbroken chain.
6. A potentially infinite process
a) is, in fact, continued on and on without end.
b) is mere potentiality, without reality.
c) could, in principle, be continued on and on without end.
d) could, in principle, have a first cause.
7. Democritus and Leucippus claimed that the universe consists of
a) eternally existent atoms.
b) four primary elements: fire, water, earth and air.
c) one primary external element: water.
d) an unknowable, indefinite, prime matter.
8. Even if God is the first cause of the universe, it does not follow that God is
a) omnipotent.
b) omniscient.
c) perfectly good.
d) All of the above.
9. The principle of sufficient reason claims that
a) every explanation must be fully sufficient.
b) no explanation can be fully sufficient.
c) every fact has an explanation.
d) no fact has an explanation.
10. In addition to explaining each individual event in a causal sequence, Leibniz’s Cosmological Argument demands one also explain the
a) sequence as a whole.
b) nature of causal sequences.
c) end of the sequence.
d) first cause in the sequence.
11. According to Leibniz, God’s existence is
a) necessary.
b) contingent.
c) possible.
d) probable.
12. Which of the following is an objection to Leibniz’s Cosmological Argument?
a) God might not be omniscient.
b) the universe might not be an ordered cosmos.
c) the principle of sufficient reason might not be true.
d) None of the above
13. Which of the following correctly states a central premise of the design argument: Many of the parts of plants and animals
a) have no function.
b) have a function.
c) are poorly designed.
d) have no clear design.
14. William Paley argued that the design evident in the world is analogous to the design evident in a
a) watch.
b) garden.
c) house.
d) None of the above
15. William Paley’s design argument is an example of which of the following types of argumentation?
a) Deduction
b) Induction
c) Abduction
d) Reductio ad absurdum
16. David Hume gave reasons to suggest the Design Argument may not prove that God has which of the following attributes?
a) Omniscience
b) Omnipotent
c) Perfect moral goodness.
d) All of the above.
17. Charles Darwin explains the order in the world by means of
a) artificial selection.
b) natural selection.
c) artificial design.
d) natural design.
18. Ontology is a branch of philosophy concerned with
a) divine attributes.
b) existence.
c) knowledge.
d) ethics.
19. What sort of argument shows a claim to be false by first assuming it is true and then deriving a contradiction from that assumption?
a) Deductive
b) Inductive
c) Abductive
d) Reductio ad absurdum
20. Which of the following is a key premise in St. Anselm’s ontological argument for God?
a) If God exists in reality only (and not in the mind), then he would be greater if he existed in the mind too.
b) If God exists in the mind only (and not in reality), then he would be greater if he existed in reality too.
c) If the world exists (which it does), then God exists.
d) If God exists (which he does), then the world exists.
21. Gaunilo of Marmoutiers attempted to refute St. Anselm’s ontological argument with an analogy to the most perfect
a) turtle.
b) king.
c) island.
d) wine.
22. W. K. Clifford argued that it is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone to believe anything on insufficient evidence. His critics have claimed that this argument fails owing to
a) overgeneralization.
b) not properly using the principle of sufficient reason.
c) begging the question.
d) post hoc, ergo propter hoc.
Essay Questions
1. In detail, explain the first cause argument, including major objections that have been made against it.
2. In detail, explain the cosmological argument, including major objections that have been made against it.
3. In detail, explain the argument from design, including major objections that have been made against it.
4. In detail, explain the ontological argument, including major objections that have been made against it.
5. Explain the benefits (and costs) of theism.
Chapter 4
1. According to Aquinas, God’s omnipotence is
a) able to bring about any outcome.
b) only able to bring about possible outcomes.
c) an unknowable mystery.
d) All of the above
2. According to Leibniz, the world we live in is
a) a meaningless, godless world.
b) a world with equal amounts of good and evil.
c) the best possible universe.
d) the worst possible universe.
3. Which of the following is not a premise in the theodicy argument of Leibniz?
a) Because God is omniscient, He knew how to create the world as good as possible.
b) Because God is omnipotent, He was able to create the best possible universe.
c) Because God is omnipresent, He is everywhere at all times.
d) Because God is perfectly good, He wouldn’t choose to make a suboptimal universe.
4. Which of the following best articulates the problem of evil?
a) Theism implies that ours is the best possible universe. But ours is not the best possible universe. Therefore, theism is false.
b) Atheism implies that ours is the worst possible universe. But ours is not the worst possible universe. Therefore, atheism is false.
c) Theism implies that ours is the best possible universe. Ours is the best possible universe. Therefore, theism is true.
d) Atheism implies that ours is the worst possible universe. Ours is the worst possible universe. Therefore, atheism is true.
5. The response to the problem of evil that claims suffering isn’t real is an example of which kind of argument?
a) Reductio ad absurdum
b) Abduction
c) Bait-and-switch
d) Apodeictic syllogism
6. Bait-and-switch responses
a) mislead by using words in nonstandard ways.
b) mislead by switching to another argument.
c) beg the question.
d) All of the above
7. According to Augustine of Hippo, evil is
a) a necessary complement to God’s goodness.
b) an illusion owing to human ignorance.
c) the work of the devil.
d) merely an absence (or privation) of goodness.
8. The response to the problem of evil that claims God’s goodness cannot be understood using human moral terms is an example of which kind of argument?
a) Reductio ad absurdum
b) Abduction
c) Bait-and-switch
d) Apodeictic syllogism
9. The version of theism known as dualism claims
a) suffering is not caused by God.
b) God is not omnipotent.
c) God is incapable for the time being of preventing suffering.
d) All of the above
10. Theodicies argue
a) God is incapable of preventing suffering, so should not be expected to do so.
b) God is capable of preventing suffering but justifiably chooses not to do so.
c) there is no suffering in the world.
d) all human suffering is an illusion.
11. Which of the following is not a defense of theodicy?
a) In some cases God permits suffering because the people involved deserve to suffer.
b) Suffering is good for a person in the long term because it builds one’s character.
c) Because human beings are free, we are capable of making bad decisions that lead to suffering.
d) All of the above
12. J. L. Mackie argued against free will theodicy by claiming
a) a perfect God could create people who have free will, but have such good characters that they never, or almost never, do wrong.
b) a perfect God could not create people who have free will and always act morally.
c) free will is an illusion.
d) human suffering is an illusion.
13. Free will theodicy seems unable to explain
a) suffering owing to human evils.
b) suffering owing to natural evils (e.g., earthquakes or hurricanes).
c) how free will can even be possible.
d) All of the above
14. Skeptical theism claims that human beings should be skeptical
a) of God’s existence.
b) of trying to understand God’s reasons for permitting suffering.
c) that suffering exists at all.
d) All of the above
15. One of the criticisms of skeptical theism is that it leads to
a) moral nihilism.
b) moral paralysis.
c) moral fanaticism.
d) no longer believing in God.
16. Natural evil is when a bad state of affairs arises from
a) human causes.
b) nonhuman causes.
c) innate human evil.
d) All of the above
17. Which of the following exemplifies natural evil?
a) The Holocaust
b) Earthquakes
c) Bad government
d) Losing one’s job
18. Moral evil is when a bad state of affairs arises from
a) human causes.
b) nonhuman causes.
c) innate human evil.
d) All of the above
19. Which of the following exemplifies moral evil?
a) The Holocaust
b) Earthquakes
c) Bad government
d) Losing one’s job
20. If one were to claim that disbelief in God was beneficial, this would be an example of which kind of argument?
a) Evidential
b) Reductio ad absurdum
c) Pragmatic
d) Inductive
Essay Questions
1. Philosophy has raised the “problem of evil.” After explaining this problem, discuss how it relates to God’s omniscience and omnipotence.
2. The problem of evil must address various different forms of evil. What are these, and how do they relate to a possible resolution of this problem?
3. Discuss one of the various forms of theodicy. What objections can be made against it?
4. What is moral paralysis, and how does it relate to theology? Could this problem relate to ways of thinking outside of theology?
5. It has been claimed that some people benefit from believing that God exists and that this justifies their theism. Similarly, one might argue that some people benefit from believing that God doesn’t exist? Discuss these ideas.
Chapter 5
1. René Descartes (1596–1650) set out to find complete certainty in
a) The New Organon.
b) Meditations on First Philosophy.
c) Leviathan.
d) What Is Truth?
2. Nicolaus Copernicus’s On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres argued that
a) the sun is stationary at the center of the universe, while the planets (including the earth) move around it.
b) the earth is stationary at the center of the universe, while the sun moves around it.
c) the sun and the earth are both in eternal, relative orbits in a universe without a center.
d) the sun and the earth orbit equidistantly around a theoretical center of the universe.
3. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) refuted the belief that celestial bodies are
a) in eternal and perfect motion.
b) divinities.
c) perfectly spherical.
d) alive.
4. In his Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes
a) decided to put aside all pre-existing doctrine and to only accept a claim once he had shown that it was certainly true.
b) compared himself to a builder constructing a new building from scratch.
c) wanted to find truths of which he could be certain.
d) All of the above
5. Descartes’s Meditations on First Philosophy argued that our senses have
a) deceived us in the past, though should always be trusted.
b) deceived us in the past, thus should not be trusted absolutely.
c) never deceived us in the past, though should still not be trusted.
d) never deceived us in the past, thus should be trusted absolutely.
6. Which of the following claims regarding the validity of the senses did Descartes not make?
a) You can’t be completely certain that you are not dreaming.
b) You can never be completely certain that you are not currently hallucinating.
c) While our senses have deceived us in the past, they have only done so in special conditions.
d) Since our sense have deceived us in the past, we can never be sure they won’t deceive us in the future.
7. An a priori argument is one that
a) does not rely on observation.
b) relies on observation.
c) relies on both observation and pure reason.
d) None of the above
8. An a posteriori argument is one that
a) does not rely on observation.
b) relies on observation.
c) relies on both observation and pure reason.
d) None of the above
9. Descartes posited an “evil demon” that could deceive him about everything except
a) what he was presently experiencing.
b) his memories of the past.
c) his mathematical calculations.
d) that he exists.
10. Descartes claimed he was totally sure that he existed because
a) God, being all good, would not allow an evil demon to deceive him.
b) God, being all good, would not allow an evil demon to exist.
c) even if his life is a dream, he must nevertheless exist in order to have the dream.
d) the difference between living and dreaming is indubitable.
11. Descartes claimed to know with complete certainty that he was a
a) divine creature.
b) thinking thing.
c) rational animal.
d) All of the above
12. Descartes is often thought to have claimed that you can have certain knowledge about some conscious mental states. Which of the following was not included in these?
a) If it seems to you that you’re in pain, then you are in pain.
b) If it seems to you that you’re experiencing a color (e.g., red), then you are experiencing that color.
c) If it seems to you that 1 + 1 is 2, then it is true for you that 1 + 1 is 2.
d) All of the above
13. Descartes claimed that when he reflected on certain claims, such as “I exist” or “I am a thinking thing,” he felt compelled to believe because these perceptions were
a) obvious and immediate.
b) logically necessary.
c) empirically verifiable.
d) vivid and clear.
14. Descartes proposed that whenever he vividly and clearly perceives that something is true,
a) it is true.
b) he is entitled to believe it.
c) it is true and he is entitled to believe it with complete certainty.
d) it is true, but he is not entitled to believe with complete certainty.
15. Descartes claims to prove the existence of god based on his vivid and clear perception that
a) God exists.
b) God is supremely perfect.
c) God is supremely good.
d) God is the cause of his own being.
16. Descartes thought he could show that the evil demon story is false based on the fact that
a) a perfect God would not allow an evil demon to deceive us like that.
b) a perfect God would not allow an evil demon to exist in the first place.
c) a perfect God provides Revelation, on which all truth depends.
d) All of the above
17. Descartes argued that God, being perfectly good, would not allow people to be led into error by vivid and clear perception. Which of the following is not a premise in that argument?
a) Malice and weakness are not to be found in God.
b) I have a faculty of judgment that was given to me by God.
c) Since God doesn’t want to deceive me, I am sure that he didn’t give me a faculty of judgment that would lead me into error while I was using it correctly.
d) Deceiving someone is often necessary for his or her own good.
18. The first premise of Descartes’s ontological argument was that whatever Descartes vividly and clearly perceives to be true is true. From this premise, he inferred that God exists. But, at the same time, when defending the reliability of vivid and clear perception, Descartes appealed to his theism. Philosophers have called this argument the
a) Cartesian fallacy.
b) Cartesian circle.
c) naturalistic fallacy.
d) slippery slope.
19. The Meditations on First Philosophy is often said to be the founding work of __________ philosophy.
a) ancient
b) medieval
c) modern
d) contemporary
20. Richard Rorty thought that when confronted by a radical skeptic the correct response is to
a) explain to the radical skeptic that he is begging the question.
b) provide the radical skeptic with Descartes’ argument from the Meditations on First Philosophy.
c) tell the radical skeptic to get lost.
d) go to the pub and have a neat whiskey.
21. When philosophers talk about someone being a skeptic, they usually have in mind someone who
a) believes some things are simply unknowable.
b) doubts to an extreme level.
c) follows Descartes.
d) acknowledges the difficulty in acquiring knowledge.
Essay Questions
1. Discuss the method Descartes used to determine what he knew and did not know, including examples.
2. Explain Descartes’s ontological argument, including objections to it.
3. Describe the role that Descartes’s evil demon plays in his epistemology.
4. Explain Saint Anselm’s ontological argument, including objections to it.
5. Set out Descartes’s proof of God as well as the objection that argues it’s circular.
Chapter 6
1. Philosophers use the term empirical evidence for evidence acquired by
a) the scientific method.
b) rigorous, logic-based argumentation.
c) sense perception.
d) All of the above
2. Empirical evidence is used in which form of reasoning?
a) A posteriori reasoning
b) A priori reasoning
c) Scientific reasoning
d) Naturalistic reasoning
3. Descartes focused on using which of the following methods?
a) A posteriori
b) A priori
c) Scientific
d) Naturalistic
4. Except for within mathematics, Hume entirely rejected the use of which of the following methods?
a) A posteriori reasoning
b) A priori reasoning
c) Scientific reasoning
d) Naturalistic reasoning
5. The “argument from perspectival variation” is used to support
a) direct realism.
b) indirect realism.
c) direct idealism.
d) indirect idealism.
6. Indirect realism claims that
a) we see objects themselves, though indirectly through the senses.
b) we see objects themselves, though indirectly through the imaginative faculty.
c) we do not see objects themselves, but the mental images they produce.
d) we do not see objects themselves, but the ideal forms of the objects.
7. In Locke’s terminology, material objects are objects that exist
a) in prime matter.
b) in the natural world.
c) within the minds of materialists.
d) outside any mind (and are not themselves minds).
8. Locke used the term idea for
a) mental objects.
b) mental images.
c) sensation of pain.
d) All of the above
9. Naïve representationalism claims that
a) the ideas generated in perception perfectly resemble the material objects they represent.
b) setting aside occasional cases of illusion, the ideas generated in perception perfectly resemble the material objects they represent.
c) setting aside occasional cases of illusion, the ideas generated in perception closely resemble the material objects they represent.
d) all theories that assume a similarity between material objects and the ideas that represent them are naïve.
10. The fact that a bee’s vision is very different from human vision—for example, bee eyes are insensitive to red light—is a powerful objection against
a) rationalism.
b) empiricism.
c) naïve representationalism.
d) idealism.
11. Locke argued that our idea of heat represents heat, but the idea of heat doesn’t resemble heat itself, just as the word
a) heat represents heat, but it doesn’t resemble heat.
b) porcupine represents porcupines, but it doesn’t resemble a porcupine.
c) pain represents pain, but it doesn’t resemble pain.
d) word represents words, but it doesn’t resemble a word.
12. Which of the following is/are included among Lockean primary qualities?
a) Shape
b) Solidity
c) Motion and rest
d) All of the above
13. Which of the following is/are included among Lockean secondary qualities?
a) Shape
b) Solidity
c) Color
d) All of the above
14. How do Lockean primary qualities differ from secondary qualities?
a) Secondary qualities are derived from primary qualities.
b) Primary qualities are derived from secondary qualities.
c) Ideas of primary qualities resemble the qualities themselves, whereas ideas of secondary qualities do not resemble the qualities themselves.
d) Ideas of secondary qualities resemble the qualities themselves, whereas ideas of primary qualities do not resemble the qualities themselves.
Essay Questions
1. Explain naïve representationalism and any objections against it.
2. Explain Locke’s distinction between primary and secondary qualities, providing examples of both. How might one object to this distinction? What qualities might not clearly fit into one or the other?
3. Berkley claimed that there were no such things as material objects. What arguments did he provide to justify this position? What criticisms can be raised against it?
4. Explain direct realism, focusing on its response to the argument from perspectival variation.
5. Explain rationalism and its use of a priori reasoning.
Chapter 7
1. David Hume (1711–1776) challenged us to justify our assumption that
a) objects exist.
b) mathematics is an a priori science.
c) empirical science is an a posteriori science.
d) what’s happened in the past will keep on happening.
2. Induction is persuasive only when it is based on a sufficiently
a) large collection of observations.
b) diverse collection of observations.
c) large and diverse collection of observations.
d) None of the above (Induction is never persuasive.)
3. Hume pointed out that there are certain exceptional cases in which predictions can be made without induction. For example, I predict
a) someone will win, unless nobody wins.
b) the sun will rise tomorrow.
c) water is wet.
d) Sam has ten fingers.
4. Predictions that can legitimately be made without inductions are based on
a) revealed truths in the Bible.
b) necessary truths.
c) certain empirical observations.
d) All of the above
5. The Principle of Uniformity of Nature refers to the fact that
a) all objects behave according to uniform, natural laws.
b) most objects behave according to uniform, natural laws.
c) objects observed in the future will typically conform to patterns observed in the past.
d) objects observed in the future will always conform to patterns observed in the past.
6. Hume questioned our acceptance of the principle of uniformity of nature based on the fact(s) that
a) it doesn’t seem to be a necessary truth.
b) it does not seem impossible that the patterns we observed in the past will now break down.
c) using induction in support of the principle of uniformity of nature is circular.
d) All of the above
7. Hume argued that one cannot show a prediction to be correct, or even to be probably correct, using induction because induction depends on
a) the principle of uniformity of nature, which itself depends upon induction.
b) having data that are sufficiently numerous, which are impossible to acquire.
c) having data that are sufficiently varied, which are impossible to acquire.
d) None of the above (Only a priori reasoning has any validity.)
8. In his book Novum Organum, Francis Bacon (1561‒1626) argued that __________ reasoning was central to the scientific method.
a) a priori
b) empirical
c) inductive
d) demonstrative
9. Based on his skepticism regarding inductive reasoning, Hume advised us to
a) give up on inductive reasoning.
b) put all scientific efforts into solving the problem of induction.
c) use only a priori modes of reasoning.
d) continue using inductive reasoning, while acknowledging that there is no rational justification for it.
10. Although Karl Popper (1902–1994) accepted Hume’s conclusion regarding inductive reasoning, he responded by arguing that
a) induction is not, in fact, used in good scientific research.
b) induction is only one aspect of good scientific research.
c) all scientific research proceeds from a priori reasoning.
d) we have a shared conception of what constitutes a “reasonable” inference and that to say an inference is “reasonable” is just to say it meets those shared standards.
11. Popper argued that it was crucial for scientists to maintain a “critical attitude,” whereby they would
a) be critical regarding all human knowledge.
b) be critical of all scientific theories.
c) actively search for refutations of the prevailing theories.
d) All of the above
12. Popper’s critics have argued that he did not have an adequate account of __________ science.
a) applied
b) mathematical
c) evolutionary
d) political
13. Peter Strawson (1919‒2006) responded to Hume’s challenge to justify inductive reasoning by arguing that
a) induction is not, in fact, used in good scientific research.
b) induction is only one aspect of good scientific research.
c) all scientific research proceeds from a priori reasoning.
d) we have a shared conception of what constitutes a “reasonable” inference and that to say an inference is “reasonable” is just to say it meets those shared standards.
14. Strawson suggested Hume’s question “Are our ordinary standards of reasonableness themselves reasonable?” is analogous to asking the meaningless question:
a) Are the laws of countries themselves legal?
b) Are the constitutions of countries themselves constitutional?
c) Are reasons rational?
d) Is science scientific?
15. Even if it is meaningless to ask whether inductive arguments are reasonable, Hume can respond to Strawson by instead asking whether inductive arguments are
a) reliable.
b) justified.
c) coherent.
d) intelligible.
16. According to Wesley Salmon (1925‒2001), the justification of induction amounts to which of the following arguments?
a) Since science uses induction successfully, it is absurd to be skeptical about it.
b) So long as the data used are sufficiently numerous and varied, induction is justified.
c) To question the validity of induction is to fall prey to the fallacy of begging the question.
d) If you use inductive procedures, you can call yourself “reasonable”—and isn’t that nice!
17. Epistemically basic beliefs are beliefs that
a) act as premises in scientific reasoning
b) are warranted without argument.
c) stand at the base of all thinking.
d) All of the above
18. If the principle of uniformity of nature is an epistemically basic belief, it suffices to reply to Hume’s challenge by claiming
a) I have not drawn any conclusions, but merely stated my premises.
b) anyone who denies the validity of induction is begging the question.
c) I don’t need to provide any justification—the principle of uniformity of nature is just basic.
d) tu quoque.
19. One of the major difficulties regarding epistemically basic beliefs is determining
a) precisely which beliefs are basic.
b) what exactly it means for a belief to be basic.
c) which areas of knowledge make use of basic beliefs.
d) how basic beliefs are related to nonbasic beliefs.
20. Which of the following did Alvin Plantinga (b. 1932) argue is a basic belief?
a) The existence of God
b) Anything that begins to exist must have a cause that produced it
c) Consequentialism
d) Induction
21. Which of the following did G. E. Moore (1873‒1958) argue is a basic belief?
a) The existence of God
b) Anything that begins to exist must have a cause that produced it
c) Consequentialism
d) Induction
22. Until a method is specified for determining which beliefs are basic, philosophers who insist that some of their own views are “basic” are open to the charge of
a) begging the question.
b) arguing ad hominem.
c) arguing in a circle.
d) dogmatism.
23. The following is an example of a(n) __________ argument.
Premise 1: The front door is ajar.
Premise 2: Some of your valuables are missing.
Premise 3: Your draws have been opened, and their contents strewn about.
Premise 4: One of your windows has been broken.
Conclusion: You have been burgled.
a) inductive
b) abductive
c) deductive
d) fallacious
24. Abduction is also called
a) inference to the best explanation.
b) induction.
c) enumerative induction.
d) apodixis.
25. Epistemically basic beliefs are also called
a) foundational beliefs.
b) self-evident truths.
c) axioms.
d) All of the above
Essay Questions
1. Using examples, explain abductive argumentation, discussing both its strengths and weaknesses.
2. Explain the principle of uniformity of nature and Hume’s criticisms of it.
3. Explain Karl Popper’s account of scientific methodology. How does applied science pose a challenge to this account?
4. Explain the concept of an epistemically basic belief. What, if anything, distinguishes this from dogmatism?
5. Explain Peter Strawson’s “shared standards of reasonableness” argument as a response to Hume’s challenge to justify inductive reasoning.
Chapter 8
1. The branch of philosophy that tries to answer the question “What, exactly, is knowledge?” is
a) metaphysics.
b) epistemology.
c) aesthetics.
d) scientology.
2. It is generally believed that there are three fundamental kinds of knowledge. Which of the following is not one of these?
a) Skill or ability
b) Acquaintance
c) Epistemic knowledge
d) Knowledge of facts
3. Which kind of knowledge are the following examples instances of?
Lachlan knows that Ottawa is the capital of Canada.
Shanice knows that there is no greatest prime number.
Hyeon knows that John Quincy Adams was the sixth president of the United States.
a) Skill or ability
b) Acquaintance
c) Epistemic knowledge
d) Knowledge of facts
4. A proposition can be thought of as something that is expressed by a declarative sentence that
a) purports to state a fact.
b) states a fact.
c) purports to state one’s opinion.
d) states one’s opinion.
5. Philosophers often describe the form of sentences of propositional knowledge as
a) S purports that p.
b) S purports p.
c) S knows that p.
d) S knows p.
6. Almost all philosophers agree that if one knows that p is the case, then
a) p is true.
b) p cannot be false.
c) one believes that p.
d) All of the above
7. Although one may believe that p, and p may be true, one may still not know that p. This situation is universally agreed to arise from
a) the use of induction (i.e., one can never acquire a sufficiently numerous and varied data set).
b) the use of abduction (i.e., one can never be sure one inferred the correct explanation).
c) the use of a priori reasoning (i.e., one may not have considered the role of a posteriori reasoning).
d) luck (i.e., one may not have been justified in believing p).
8. A belief that p, which is acquired by luck, is missing the __________ aspect of knowledge.
a) truth
b) justification
c) epistemic certainty
d) All of the above
9. Which of the following is equivalent to “If S knows that p, then S believes that p, p is true, and S’s belief is justified”?
a) If S believes that p, then S knows that p, and p is true.
b) If S believes that p, then S knows that p, p is true, and S’s belief is justified.
c) If S believes that p, and S’s belief is justified, then S knows that p.
d) If S believes that p, and S’s belief is both justified and true, then S knows that p.
10. The philosopher __________ first claimed knowledge is justified true belief.
a) Plato
b) Aristotle
c) Descartes
d) Karl Popper
11. Sometimes we have beliefs (Level-1) that are inferred and justified by other beliefs (Level-2), which are in turn inferred and justified by still other beliefs (Level-N), and so on. __________ was the first philosopher to ask where this sort of inference and justification stops.
a) Plato
b) Aristotle
c) Descartes
d) John Locke
12. Aristotle noted that there are three possibilities as to where the chain of inference and justification of one belief by others may stop. Which of the following is not one of those possibilities?
a) It doesn’t stop; the chain of beliefs that justify other beliefs is infinite.
b) The chain of justifying beliefs has a circular structure and eventually returns to where it started.
c) The chain of justifying beliefs is simply an illusion and all beliefs have the same justification.
d) There must be some justified beliefs that are not justified by other beliefs.
13. Of the three possibilities as to where the chain of inference and justification of one belief by others may stop, Aristotle considered which of the following to be the only legitimate option?
a) It doesn’t stop; the chain of beliefs that justify other beliefs is infinite.
b) The chain of justifying beliefs has a circular structure and eventually returns to where it started.
c) The chain of justifying beliefs is simply an illusion and all beliefs have the same justification.
d) There must be some justified beliefs that are not justified by other beliefs.
14. Which possibility, regarding the chain of justification, can be used to justify any conclusion?
a) The chain of beliefs that justify other beliefs is infinite.
b) The chain of justifying beliefs has a circular structure and eventually returns to where it started.
c) The chain of justifying beliefs is simply an illusion and all beliefs have the same justification.
d) There must be some justified beliefs that are not justified by other beliefs.
15. Which possibility, regarding the chain of justification, is referred to as Foundationalism?
a) The chain of beliefs that justify other beliefs is infinite.
b) The chain of justifying beliefs has a circular structure and eventually returns to where it started.
c) The chain of justifying beliefs is simply an illusion and all beliefs have the same justification.
d) There must be some justified beliefs that are not justified by other beliefs.
16. Foundationalists claim that a belief is justified
a) if it is either basic or has been inferred from basic beliefs.
b) if it is either basic or has been inferred (using good reasoning) from basic beliefs.
c) only if it is a basic belief.
d) only if it has been inferred (using good reasoning) from basic beliefs.
17. __________ was not a foundationalist.
a) Plato.
b) Aristotle.
c) Descartes.
d) John Locke.
18. The most serious challenge facing foundationalism is
a) avoiding circularity.
b) avoiding an infinite regress.
c) specifying which beliefs are epistemically basic, and explaining why those beliefs are justified.
d) distinguishing epistemically basic beliefs from theological beliefs.
19. Critics of foundationalism claim that talk of “self-justification” is
a) epistemically vacuous.
b) epistemically incoherent.
c) another way of saying that we should accept certain beliefs for no reason at all.
d) another way of saying that one prefers one’s own beliefs over other beliefs.
20. __________ used philosophy of science as a major source for its account of epistemic justification.
a) Foundationalism
b) Coherentism
c) Reliabilism
d) Skepticism
21. While foundationalists think that our justified beliefs are structured like a building, coherentists maintain that our justified beliefs are structured like a(n)
a) web.
b) tree.
c) forest.
d) animal.
22. For coherentists, an account of justification starts with __________ beliefs.
a) individual
b) basic
c) a system of interrelated
d) All of the above
23. For coherentists, an individual belief, p, is justified
a) if S believes that p, and p is true.
b) if S believes that p is coherent.
c) in virtue of p’s membership in a system of basic beliefs.
d) in virtue of p’s membership in a coherent system of beliefs.
24. Coherentists claim that the __________ relationship among beliefs is necessary for a system of beliefs to be coherent.
a) logical
b) inductive
c) explanatory
d) All of the above
25. The “isolation objection” to coherentism claims that its account of epistemic justification is isolated from
a) other coherent beliefs one might have.
b) what is going on in the external world.
c) epistemically basic beliefs.
d) what happens in the practical scientific disciplines.
26. __________ is an externalist approach to epistemic justification.
a) Foundationalism
b) Coherentism
c) Reliabalism
d) Skepticism
27. For one version of reliabilism, the epistemic justification of beliefs depends on the
a) processes that produce the beliefs.
b) basic quality of the beliefs.
c) internal coherence of the beliefs.
d) external coherence of the beliefs.
28. A belief is justified for a reliabilist when that belief
a) arises from a more basic belief.
b) is a member of a coherent set of beliefs.
c) is produced by a process that yields a relatively high proportion of true beliefs and a relatively low proportion of false beliefs.
d) is produced by a process that yields absolute certainty.
29. Invalid inference strategies may nonetheless be legitimate under which of the following approaches to epistemic justification?
a) Foundationalism
b) Coherentism
c) Reliabilism
d) Skepticism
30. For reliabilism, beliefs formed on the basis of “testimony” are
a) always legitimate.
b) never legitimate.
c) sometimes legitimate.
d) legitimate if not acquired from Fake News.
31. Skepticism claims that the justification a person has for her belief
a) must guarantee that the belief is true.
b) must make it likely that the belief is true.
c) is always circular, and thus can never be shown to be legitimate.
d) is always inaccessible to her own mind.
32. Philosophers who do not think that justification of a belief must guarantee that belief’s truth are called
a) internalists.
b) externalists.
c) skeptics.
d) fallibilists.
33. Edmund Gettier used what have come to be called “Gettier cases” to show that one can
a) know something without justification.
b) know something without it being true.
c) have a true belief that is not justified.
d) have a justified true belief that is not an instance of knowledge.
34. Which of the following is not a declarative sentence?
a) Alba is tall.
b) It is summer.
c) Summer is warm.
d) Close the door.
Essay Questions
1. Explain knowledge as acquaintance, knowledge how, and propositional knowledge. Include examples of each.
2. Explain foundationalism and one objection to it.
3. Explain coherentism and one objection to it.
4. Compare and contrast internalism and externalism.
5. Discuss the brain in a vat thought experiment as a criticism of internalism.
Chapter 9
1. To say that a calculator is “deterministic” means that
a) given the same input, the calculator will perform the same calculations, in the same order, and then produce the same output, leaving nothing to chance.
b) given the same input, the calculator will perform the same calculations, in the same order, and then produce the same output, except insofar as chance interferes.
c) given any input at all input, the calculator will perform the same calculations, in the same order, and then produce the same output, leaving nothing to chance.
d) given any input at all input, the calculator will perform the same calculations, in the same order, and then produce the same output, except insofar as chance interferes.
2. According to determinists, the laws of physics are deterministic and govern
a) everything.
b) everything beyond the subatomic level.
c) everything except the actions of human beings.
d) everything except the actions of living creatures.
3. __________ imagined a supernatural “demon,” with unlimited memory, an unlimited ability to calculate, and a complete knowledge of the laws of physics, who, given a complete description of the world at some particular time, could figure out the whole subsequent course of history—including all human actions.
a) Plato
b) Descartes
c) Newton
d) Pierre-Simon Laplace
4. Regarding “chance” events, such as dice rolls and coin flips, a determinist will claim
a) we can predict the outcomes of these events precisely, so they are not properly “chance” events at all.
b) we cannot currently predict the outcomes of these events, but this is only because our abilities to calculate and measure are limited.
c) we will never be able to predict the outcomes of these events, because we are limited by our merely human minds.
d) even God could not predict such chance events.
5. Owing to the belief in deterministic physics during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the solar system was sometimes compared to a(n)
a) firmly grounded building.
b) animal with interrelated parts.
c) giant clock.
d) well-functioning city.
6. It is now considered an open question whether the laws of physics are deterministic, owing to the influence of the
a) Copernican revolution.
b) Newtonian revolution.
c) quantum revolution.
d) communist revolution.
7. According to the text, in contrast to the merely apparent “chance” character of dice rolls or coin flips, some quantum physicists believe __________ is/are a genuinely random process.
a) the origin of life
b) radioactive decay
c) Einstein-Rosen bridges
d) All of the above
8. The belief in free will is rejected by
a) quantum theorists.
b) soft determinists.
c) hard determinists.
d) libertarians.
9. Which of the following is an aspect of what we have in mind when we say that we have “free will”?
a) You have a number of different options before you.
b) You are, to some extent, in control of which option you chose.
c) You are responsible for your choice.
d) All of the above
10. Even granting that we have free will, the text admits which of the following is an example of how we might not always be in control of ourselves?
a) Someone with a bad habit inculcated over many years.
b) Someone addicted to smoking.
c) Someone having an epileptic seizure.
d) Someone in the throes of passion.
11. Determinism is particularly threatening to the idea that
a) we are responsible for what we do—that is, that we are at fault for the things we do wrong or deserve credit for the good things we do.
b) God exists and is the cause of the universe.
c) there is an afterlife—that is, heaven and hell.
d) All of the above
12. __________ defended hard determinism by stating: “Man is a purely physical being. . . . [He is] subject to . . . immutable laws. . . . Man’s life is a line that Nature commands him to describe upon the surface of the earth: without his ever being able to swerve from it even for an instant. He is born without his own consent [and] he is unceasingly modified by causes, whether visible or concealed, over which he has no control. . . . Nevertheless, despite of the shackles by which he is bound, it is pretended he is a free agent, or that independent of the causes by which he is moved, he determines his own will; regulates his own condition.”
a) William James
b) Baron d’Holbach
c) Immanuel Kant
d) David Hume
13. Philosophers who suggested that we have free will even though determinism is true are known as
a) quantum theorists.
b) soft determinists.
c) hard determinists.
d) libertarians.
14. __________ defended soft determinism by stating: “By ‘liberty,’ then, we can only mean a power of acting or not acting according to the determinations of the will; i.e. if we choose to stay still we may do so, and if we choose to move we may do that.”
a) William James
b) Baron d’Holbach
c) Immanuel Kant
d) David Hume
15. When Hume said that a free person acts “according to the determinations of the will,” he meant that a free person’s actions are a result of
a) radical, metaphysical freedom.
b) a will determined by the universal laws of physics.
c) her decisions, in pursuit of what she desires.
d) All of the above
16. Hume believes that a person is free to the extent she meets which of the following condition(s)?
a) The person is acting in pursuit of what she desires, and her actions are a result of her own decisions.
b) There are no obstacles in the person’s way, which prevent her from acting as she chooses.
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above
17. Which condition(s) not obtaining led Hume to believe that the movements of an epileptic person having a seizure aren’t free?
a) The person is acting in pursuit of what he desires, and his actions are a result of his own decisions.
b) There are no obstacles in the person’s way, which prevent him from acting as he chooses.
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above
18. Which condition(s) not obtaining led Hume to believe that the movements of a prisoner aren’t free?
a) The prisoner is acting in pursuit of what she desires, and her actions are a result of her own decisions.
b) There are no obstacles in the prisoner’s way, which prevent her from acting as she chooses.
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above
19. __________ rejected determinism by stating: “Determinism, in denying that anything else can be in its stead, virtually defines the universe as a place in which what ought to be is impossible,—in other words, as an organism whose constitution is afflicted with an incurable taint, an irremediable flaw.”
a) William James
b) Baron d’Holbach
c) Immanuel Kant
d) David Hume
20. Philosophers who think that determinism is false and that (in part for this reason) we are capable of free action are known as
a) quantum theorists.
b) soft determinists.
c) hard determinists.
d) libertarians.
21. Scientific libertarians think that
a) hard and soft determinism are false.
b) there is randomness in our neural processes, similar to the randomness in contemporary physics, so that our decision-making is not deterministic.
c) because our decisions are indeterministic, we are, in part, free.
d) All of the above
22. Libertarianism has been criticized in which of the following ways?
a) Precisely because libertarians characterize actions as caused in part by random events in our brains, it would seem we are neither in charge of what we do nor responsible for our actions.
b) Precisely because libertarians characterize actions as caused in part by random events in our brains, no arguments can support or refute such a position.
c) Precisely because libertarians characterize actions as caused in part by random events in our brains, there is no way of knowing which of our actions are free and which determined.
d) All of the above
23. __________ claimed that we each have a nonphysical, “transcendental” self, that is outside space and time, is ungoverned by the laws of physics, and makes free decisions for which we are morally responsible.
a) William James
b) Baron d’Holbach
c) Immanuel Kant
d) David Hume
Essay Questions
1. Explain determinism making use of Laplace’s demon.
2. Describe Hume’s position on free will, focusing on the two conditions he thinks must be met for the will to be free.
3. Explain scientific libertarianism, focusing on whether it can or cannot accommodate each of the three features of human decision-making required for free will.
4. William James found determinism disturbing because it seemed to entail that all the horrors of the past were inevitable. Explain how libertarianism can respond to James’s worry?
5. After setting forth each position, compare and contrast scientific libertarianism and radical libertarianism.
Chapter 10
1. What is/are the central question(s) in the part of philosophy of mind often called the “problem of other minds”?
a) Do other people (and things like robots or fish) have mental states?
b) Are other people’s (things’) mental states similar to yours?
c) How can we know whether other people (things) have mental states and whether they are similar to yours?
d) All of the above
2. Which of the following is/are the central question(s) of the mind–body problem?
a) Do minds exist?
b) Why are minds always connected to bodies?
c) How are mental states and processes related to physical and biological and behavioral phenomena?
d) All of the above
3. The mind–body problem falls squarely in the part of philosophy known as
a) metaphysics.
b) phenomenology.
c) ethics.
d) aesthetics.
4. Which question(s) in philosophy of mind, from among the following, is/are epistemological?
a) Do other people (and things like robots or fish) have mental states?
b) Are other people’s (things’) mental states similar to yours?
c) How can we know whether other people (things) have mental states and whether they are similar to yours?
d) All of the above
5. __________ is widely considered to be the first “modern” philosopher.
a) Gilbert Ryle
b) Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia
c) René Descartes
d) John Locke
6. Descartes believed that
a) he could imagine his mind existing without his body.
b) he could imagine his body existing without his mind.
c) his body and his mind are different things.
d) All of the above
7. Owing to the existence of properties such as consciousness, intentionality, and rationality, Descartes concluded
a) there must be a mysterious, divine spark within human beings.
b) there must be another, fundamentally different category of things in the universe—minds.
c) minds must be more metaphysically fundamental than bodies.
d) All of the above
8. The metaphysical theory that claims that minds and matter are fundamentally different kinds of things is often called
a) substance dualism.
b) mind–matter dualism.
c) substance dichotomism.
d) mind–matter dichotomism.
9. Descartes believed that the
a) mental is derived from the physical.
b) physical is derived from the mental.
c) division between the mental and the physical arose with the existence of human beings.
d) division between the mental and the physical goes back to the origin of the universe.
10. Regarding the causal interaction between the mind and body, Descartes held that the
a) mind could causally affect the body.
b) body could causally affect the mind.
c) body could causally affect the mind, and the mind could causally affect the body.
d) neither the mind nor the body could causally affect the other.
11. __________ objected to substance dualism by wondering how—if minds and matter are totally different kinds of things (i.e., metaphysically distinct substances)—it is possible for them to causally interact with one another.
a) Gilbert Ryle
b) Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia
c) René Descartes
d) John Locke
12. Descartes believed that minds exist in
a) time, but not in space.
b) space, but not in time.
c) both time and space.
d) neither time nor space.
13. Descartes speculated that the mind and body interact in the
a) pineal gland.
b) cerebral cortex.
c) corpus callosum.
d) Wernicke area.
14. Which aspect(s)of Cartesian dualism, from among the following, make(s) the problem of other minds exceedingly difficult to solve?
a) Since minds are not physical substances, they cannot be explained by the laws of physics.
b) Since minds are not physical substances, they cannot be perceived (e.g., seen or felt), leaving no way of determining whether other people have them.
c) Since bodies are not mental substances, they cannot be known through introspection.
d) All of the above
15. The mind–body problem is relevant to
a) all animals.
b) only mammals.
c) only higher mammals.
d) only human beings.
16. __________ vividly illustrated the difficulty of determining whether other people’s mental states are similar to yours through an “inverted spectrum” thought experiment. In this experiment, what other people experience when looking at a Red Delicious apple, inverted spectrum people experience when looking at blueberries.
a) Gilbert Ryle
b) Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia
c) René Descartes
d) John Locke
17. __________ proposed a memorably disparaging epithet for the dualist view, whereby the mind is a “ghost in the machine”
a) Gilbert Ryle
b) Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia
c) René Descartes
d) John Locke
18. Verificationism holds that a declarative sentence is literally meaningful if and only if it is
a) true.
b) unambiguous.
c) either true or false.
d) either true or false or unambiguous.
19. For verificationists, a sentence can be literally meaningful
a) by virtue of the meanings of the words it employs.
b) by observation.
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above
20. If verificationism is true, then
a) dualism must be verified, before being accepted.
b) dualism must also be true.
c) dualism must be false.
d) we have no way of knowing whether dualism is true or false.
21. According to verificationists, claims about the mental states of other people are verified by
a) observing their brain waves with an electroencephalogram (EEG).
b) observing their behavior.
c) having people report what they are experiencing (i.e., what they are thinking, feeling, etc.).
d) All of the above
22. Which of the following claims is at the core of philosophical behaviorism?
a) Although there are two fundamental substances (mental and physical), they can both be observed and verified.
b) Although there are two fundamental substances (mental and physical), only the physical aspect can be observed and verified.
c) the meaning of sentences attributing mental states to an individual can be analyzed into a set of sentences about (i) how the individual would behave and (ii) what the individual would experience under a variety of circumstances.
d) The meaning of sentences attributing mental states to an individual can be analyzed into a set of sentences about how the individual would behave under a variety of circumstances.
23. The behaviorist’s answer to how mental states and processes are related to physical, biological, and behavioral phenomena is that mental states and processes are
a) behavioral dispositions.
b) equivalent to behaviors themselves.
c) mere epiphenomena.
d) emergent properties arising from the physical.
24. Which of the following is the behaviorists’ answer to whether other people have mental states?
a) Yes, since they experience pretty much the same things as you experience.
b) Yes, since they have pretty much the same behavioral dispositions that you have.
c) No, since we can have no idea whether they experience the same things as you experience.
d) It’s impossible to know, since we can have no idea whether they experience the same things as you experience.
25. According to the philosophical behaviorists, if something behaves like a normal human under a wide variety of conditions, then we
a) may tentatively assume it has mental states, though we cannot be sure.
b) can know it has mental states.
c) can perform behavioral analysis on such behavior and then determine whether it has mental states.
d) All of the above
26. Behaviorists dispatch the inverted-spectrum problem by claiming
a) inverted-spectrum people are a mere anomaly.
b) inverted-spectrum people display their inversion through behavior.
c) inverted-spectrum people are impossible.
d) there is no evidence inverted-spectrum people exist.
27. __________ challenges behaviorism by posing a thought experiment in which an actor perfectly exhibits the behavior characteristic of someone in pain even though he is not.
a) Gilbert Ryle
b) Daniel Dennett
c) Hilary Putnam
d) Ned Block
28. __________ challenges behaviorism by asking you to imagine that you need an operation and an anesthesiologist offers you a choice of two drugs: a traditional one that induces a coma-like state where the patient is completely unconscious and a new product that merely leads to temporary paralysis.
a) Gilbert Ryle
b) Daniel Dennett
c) Hilary Putnam
d) Ned Block
29. For mind–brain identity theorists, the question “Which brain states are identical with which mental states” can only be answered by
a) empirical science.
b) noetic science.
c) a priori reasoning.
d) metaphysics.
30. Mind–brain identity theorists answer the question posed by the problem of other minds (i.e., do other people have mental states?) by which of the following claims?
a) No, they don’t, since we cannot acquire knowledge of mental states.
b) No, they don’t, since we have not acquired knowledge of the brain.
c) Yes, they do, if they have mental states like yours.
d) Yes, they do, if they have brains like yours.
31. Of the following objections, which has/have been raised against the mind–brain identity theory?
a) A pattern of firing of neurons seems to be a very different thing from an experience of a blue rectangle.
b) If the brains of other creatures are not like ours, then they don’t have mental states like ours.
c) Neither an extraterrestrial nor a robot can think about math problems.
d) All of the above
32. Functionalists believe that a mental state can be entirely characterized by describing
a) its characteristic causes.
b) what effects it has on other mental states.
c) what behaviors it can produce on its own or when combined with other mental states.
d) All of the above
33. Functionalist maintains that pain is anything that plays the pain-role in a complex causal system that captures our widely shared, common-sense beliefs about
a) pain.
b) pain and other mental states.
c) pain, other mental states, and environmental stimuli.
d) pain, other mental states, environmental stimuli, and behavior.
34. Functionalism attempted to avoid the problems of behaviorism by accounting for, in addition to behavior,
a) other mental state terms, like “believes,” “wants,” and so on.
b) the fundamental difference between brain states and mental states.
c) the fundamental identity between brain states and mental states.
d) the dependency of mental states on brain states.
35. For a functionalist, if a creature has a physical and chemical composition very different from ours,
a) it is impossible for it to have mental states.
b) it is impossible for it to have mental states like ours.
c) it is no obstacle at all for it to having mental states, just not like ours.
d) is no obstacle at all for it to have mental states like ours.
36. __________ has criticized functionalism for being mere “folk psychology.”
a) Gilbert Ryle
b) Daniel Dennett
c) Hilary Putnam
d) Paul Churchland
37. Eliminativists think that common-sense mental states, including beliefs, desires, and pains, are
a) brain states; they are identical to the mental states to which they correspond.
b) emergent properties; they arise from certain underlying mental states.
c) like witches; they are the posits of a mistaken folk theory, and we should come to grips with the fact that they do not exist.
d) mere epiphenomena; they appear real to us, but have no causal efficacy.
38. __________ noted that the current adult population of China is now roughly the same as the number of neurons in a human brain. He then suggested that, according to functionalism, it should be possible to build an analog of a human brain using one Chinese person to play the role of each neuron, whereby this elaborate system of a billion Chinese people would feel pain.
a) Ned Block
b) Daniel Dennett
c) Hilary Putnam
d) Paul Churchland
39. Besides the physical properties studied by physics, panpsychism holds that ordinary matter also has
a) mystical, unknowable properties.
b) a primitive form of consciousness.
c) a highly advanced form of pure mind.
d) All of the above
40. A person’s mental state is conscious when
a) he can detect the state by introspection.
b) that mental state occurs within a living being.
c) his brain waves are detectable with an EEG.
d) All of the above
Essay Questions
1. Explain Cartesian dualism and Princess Elisabeth’s objection to it.
2. Explain the concept of pain from the point of view of a behaviorist. What objections can be raised against this approach to pain and other similar experiences?
3. The mind–brain identity theory has been said to be “chauvinistic.” Explain what this means and how analytic functionalism attempts to avoid such criticism.
4. Explain eliminativism and psycho-functionalism, focusing on their relation to folk psychology.
5. Summarize Ned Block’s famous objection to functionalism. How might a functionalist respond?
Chapter 11
1. Numerical identity, an important aspect of personal identity theory, is defined by a __________ relation.
a) reflexive
b) symmetric
c) transitive
d) All of the above
2. A necessary condition that our moral and legal principles place on holding an accused person responsible and punishing him is the __________ identity of the perpetrator and the accused.
a) numerical
b) relative
c) ethical
d) psychic
3. To say that something is nonmaterial means it
a) is spiritual.
b) is not made of matter.
c) cannot be understood through logic.
d) cannot be detected or studied by physics or any of the other natural sciences.
4. To say that something is nonphysical means it
a) is spiritual.
b) is not made of matter.
c) cannot be understood through logic.
d) cannot be detected or studied by physics or any of the other natural sciences.
5. The soul, as the seat of consciousness, is the part of us that
a) has conscious experiences.
b) is consciously aware of itself.
c) is numerically identical with the brain.
d) All of the above
6. According to the soul theory, if God is going to bring you back to life many years after you die, God may link your soul to
a) the very same material body.
b) a new material body.
c) a spiritual body.
d) All of the above
7. According to the soul theory, the soul is an immaterial thing that is the seat of consciousness and the part of a person that thinks. It would therefore be a major problem for it as a theory if it were determined that the
a) soul cannot be detected by scientific instruments.
b) soul cannot be conscious of itself
c) brain, a material thing, interacts with the soul, a nonmaterial thing.
d) brain is the seat of consciousness and the part of a person that thinks.
8. According to soul theory, for one person to be identical to another (say, “Professor Stich” at the beginning of class and “Professor Stich” at the end of class), the two must
a) have the same memories.
b) have the same personality.
c) be connected to the same soul.
d) All of the above
9. __________ held that personal identity is determined by a cluster of psychological properties, the most important of which is memory.
a) Aristotle
b) René Descartes
c) John Locke
d) Gilbert Rile
10. __________ asks us to imagine the following thought experiment. There is a town in which the prince lives in a grand castle and the cobbler lives in a humble cottage. One night, the prince and cobbler each go to bed. But the prince’s memories are transferred overnight to the cobbler, and the cobbler’s memories are transferred to the prince.
a) Aristotle
b) René Descartes
c) John Locke
d) Gilbert Rile
11. A “person stage” is
a) a short, temporal segment of the life of a person.
b) a temporal segment of a person’s life defined by a change in personality.
c) a long, temporal sequence of non-person stages.
d) the entirety of a person’s life.
12. __________ is the term used to describe real and apparent memories.
a) R-memory
b) A-memory
c) S-memory
d) M-memory
13. Which of the following criticisms has/have been raised against memory theory?
a) The supposed personal identity may be based on apparent, not real memories.
b) The memories preserving personal identity must be caused by the experiences remembered.
c) The principle of transitivity may not hold between various person stages.
d) All of the above
14. Proponents of the no branching constraint argue that
a) the person stages of one’s life cannot have more than one branch.
b) the person stages of one’s life must be numerically identical.
c) at any given time, there can only be one branch from an earlier person stage to a later person stage.
d) at any given time, there can only be one person who is numerically identical to a person at an earlier time.
15. One response to the no-branching constraint argues that numerical identity
a) is actually much less practically important than we think.
b) as a concept, can be broadened to block any counterintuitive consequences.
c) as a concept related to personal identity, begs the questions.
d) as a concept, is itself incoherent.
16. Animalism claims that
a) people are defined by the animal spirits within them that give rise to consciousness, and thus personal identity.
b) people are biological organisms and the criteria for numerical identity of people are the same as the criteria for numerical identity of biological organisms.
c) “person” is a folk concept that should be discarded, having arisen from the chauvinism of the past; man is nothing more than an animal.
d) All of the above
17. Life after death is seriously jeopardized if
a) the brain is related to personal identity.
b) brain continuity is sufficient for personal identity.
c) brain continuity is necessary for personal identity.
d) All of the above
18. Qualitative identity obtains
a) if Objects A and B share some quality with each other.
b) if and only if Objects A and B share some quality with each other.
c) if and only if Objects A and B are very similar to each other.
d) if and only if Objects A and B are identical to each other.
19. Numerically identical obtains
a) if and only if Objects A and B are the very same thing, even if they have significantly different properties.
b) if and only if Objects A and B are the very same thing, having no different properties at all.
c) when Object A is Object A.
d) when and only when Object A is Object A.
20. A is a necessary condition for B if
a) everything that is B is also A.
b) and only if everything that is B is also A.
c) B is also A.
d) and only if B is also A.
21. A is a necessary and sufficient condition for B if
a) A is a necessary condition for B and B is a sufficient condition for A.
b) and only if A is a necessary condition for B and B is a sufficient condition for A.
c) A is a necessary condition for B and A is a sufficient condition for B.
d) and only if A is a necessary condition for B and A is a sufficient condition for B.
22. Which of the following is a transitive relation?
a) Being six feet tall
b) Being taller than
c) Having an IQ of 120
d) Having a high IQ
Essay Questions
1. Explain the soul theory of personal identity and one major objection against it.
2. Explain the various versions of the memory theory of personal identity. What are their strengths and weaknesses?
3. Summarize Locke’s thought experiment about the prince and the cobbler. What would a soul theorist say about this case?
4. Explain the no-branching constraint and the problem it poses for personal identity theories.
5. Describe the animalist theory of personal identity, including its strengths and weaknesses.
Chapter 12
1. A claim is objective, in the sense used by the text, if it is either
a) true or false.
b) true or false and its truth or falsity doesn’t depend on who makes the claim.
c) true or false and its truth or falsity doesn’t depend on who makes the claim, or the time at which the claim is made.
d) true or false and its truth or falsity doesn’t depend on who makes the claim, or the time or place at which the claim is made.
2. Which of the following claims is objective?
a) John Lennon is tall.
b) It is raining here.
c) It is legal for a nineteen-year-old to buy beer.
d) There was a Romulan starship orbiting Neptune.
3. Divine command theory is often thought to rest on the premise that every law
a) must have a lawmaker.
b) must have citizens to follow it.
c) is part of a constitution.
d) is artificial.
4. The Divine command theory holds that an action is morally wrong because
a) it is forbidden by the Bible, and an action is morally okay because it has not been forbidden by the Bible.
b) it is forbidden by God, and an action is morally okay because it has not been forbidden by God.
c) God has discovered that it is morally wrong, and an action is morally okay because has discovered that it is not morally wrong.
d) God has discovered and passed on to us that it is morally wrong, and an action is morally okay because has discovered and passed on to us that it is not morally wrong.
5. Divine command theory’s understanding of law has been critiqued by scholars who insist that
a) the moral law is a fundamental feature of reality.
b) not every law has citizens who follow it.
c) all laws are artificial.
d) All of the above
6. __________ argued, “We must have more to go on in the moral life than our own human faculties. In particular, the possibility of success in the moral life requires something which enables us to get out of skepticism. The Christian God has such a function.”
a) Thomas Aquinas
b) John Calvin
c) Linda Zagzebski
d) A. J. Ayer
7. Divine command theory offers the benefit of
a) responding to the challenge of moral skepticism.
b) easily knowing the right and wrong thing to do.
c) resolving all disagreements about right and wrong.
d) All of the above
8. Divine command theory suffers from which of the following weaknesses?
a) We are committed to following God’s commands, even when they are capricious and malevolent.
b) Right and wrong are only “in principle” knowable.
c) God’s dead (Nietzsche has informed us).
d) All of the above
9. Divine command theorists have responded to arguments regarding God’s capricious and malevolent commands by claiming such commands
a) being divine, are spiritualia mysteria.
b) being divine, ought not be questioned.
c) are simply impossible.
d) All of the above
10. Which of the following claims is inconsistent with divine command theory?
a) God could command us to murder, because His command is law.
b) Right and wrong are no more and no less than what God commands.
c) God would not command us to murder because murder is morally wrong.
d) All of the above
11. __________ argued, “If [God’s] will has any cause, there must be something antecedent to it, and to which it is annexed; this it were impious to imagine. The will of God is the supreme rule of righteousness, so that everything which He wills must be held to be righteous by the mere fact of His willing it. Therefore, when it is asked why the Lord did so, we must answer, because He pleased. But if you proceed farther to ask why He pleased, you ask for something greater and more sublime than the will of God, and nothing such can be found.”
a) Thomas Aquinas
b) John Calvin
c) Linda Zagzebski
d) A. J. Ayer
12. Descriptive cultural relativism claims that
a) when it’s said that a person’s action is morally wrong, what’s meant is that the action is condemned by the ethical code of that person’s culture.
b) when someone says that an action is morally wrong, what she means is that she personally disapproves of it.
c) when a person says that an action is morally wrong, she means that she would disapprove of it, given ideal conditions.
d) different cultures around the world have different ethical codes, and what is considered wrong in one culture is not considered wrong in other cultures.
13. As a theory, descriptive cultural relativism is generally considered
a) uncontroversial.
b) false.
c) unintelligible.
d) question begging.
14. The two different versions of metaethical cultural relativism are __________ relativism and __________ relativism.
a) agent; speaker
b) agent; person
c) speaker; person
d) categorical; hypothetical
15. Agent relativism claims that when
a) it’s said that a person’s action is morally wrong, what’s meant is that the action is condemned by the ethical code of that person’s culture.
b) it’s said that a person’s action is morally wrong, what is meant is that the action is condemned by the ethical code of the speaker’s culture.
c) someone says that an action is morally wrong, what she means is that she personally disapproves of it.
d) a person says that an action is morally wrong, she means that she would disapprove of it, given ideal conditions.
16. Speaker relativism claims when
a) it’s said that a person’s action is morally wrong, what’s meant is that the action is condemned by the ethical code of that person’s culture.
b) it’s said that a person’s action is morally wrong, what is meant is that the action is condemned by the ethical code of the speaker’s culture.
c) someone says that an action is morally wrong, what she means is that she personally disapproves of it.
d) a person says that an action is morally wrong, she means that she would disapprove of it, given ideal conditions.
17. __________ seems to entail not always having to even consider someone’s moral argument.
a) Divine command theory
b) Metaethical cultural relativism
c) Expressivism
d) Qualified attitude theory
18. Simple subjectivism claims that when
a) it’s said that a person’s action is morally wrong, what’s meant is that the action is condemned by the ethical code of that person’s culture.
b) it’s said that a person’s action is morally wrong, what is meant is that the action is condemned by the ethical code of the speaker’s culture.
c) someone says that an action is morally wrong, what she means is that she personally disapproves of it.
d) a person says that an action is morally wrong, she means that she would disapprove of it, given ideal conditions.
19. __________ has a difficulty trying to give a credible account of moral disagreement and discussion.
a) Divine command theory
b) Simple subjectivism
c) Metaethical cultural relativism
d) The qualified attitude theory
20. __________ argued, “If I say to someone ‘You acted wrongly in stealing that money,’ I am not stating anything more if I had simply said ‘You stole that money.’ In adding that this action is wrong . . . I am simply evincing my moral disapproval of it. It is as if I said ‘You stole that money,’ in a particular tone of horror, or written it with the addition of some special exclamation marks. This tone, or the exclamation marks, . . . [serves] merely to show that the expression of it is attended by certain feelings in the speaker.”
a) Thomas Aquinas
b) John Calvin
c) Linda Zagzebski
d) A. J. Ayer
21. According to emotivism, “stealing is wrong” means more or less the same as
a) thou shalt not steal.
b) stealing is wrong to me.
c) stealing is wrong in my culture.
d) “boo to stealing!”
22. Expressivism attempts to solve simple subjectivism’s inability to give a plausible account of moral discussion and disagreement by arguing that when they give arguments for their views, they are
a) attempting to shame each other into doing the right thing.
b) attempting to coerce each other into doing the right thing.
c) attempting to modify each other’s emotional responses.
d) merely asserting their own emotional responses.
23. For expressivism, moral claims are
a) always true.
b) always false.
c) either true or false.
d) neither true nor false.
24. The qualified attitude theory claims that when
a) it’s said that a person’s action is morally wrong, what’s meant is that the action is condemned by the ethical code of that person’s culture.
b) it’s said that a person’s action is morally wrong, what is meant is that the action is condemned by the ethical code of the speaker’s culture.
c) someone says that an action is morally wrong, what she means is that she personally disapproves of it.
d) a person says that an action is morally wrong, she means that she would disapprove of it, given ideal conditions.
25. The qualified attitude theory does not include which of the following among its ideal conditions?
a) A person is fully informed about the relevant facts.
b) A person has constructed a well formed, deductive argument.
c) A person is psychologically normal, sober, and not suffering from a psychological disorder that affects moral feelings or reasoning.
d) A person is not biased by self-interest.
26. For the qualified attitude theory to be of any practical use,
a) one must merely attempt to approximate the ideal.
b) one must satisfy at least one condition.
c) one must merely approximate the ideal.
d) one must satisfy each condition.
Essay Questions
1. Explain the term objective as defined by the textbook, being sure to include its relation to truth and falsity.
2. Describe the divine command theory and at least one objection to it.
3. Describe the differences between the following views, noting their various strengths and weaknesses: (i) descriptive cultural relativism, (ii) agent relativism, and (iii) speaker relativism.
4. Explain simple subjectivism and at least one objection to it. How might a simple subjectivist respond to this objection?
5. Explain expressivism and at least one objection to it. How might an expressivist respond to this objection?
Chapter 13
1. Hedonism, roughly speaking, is the ethical position wherein
a) the greatest utility for the greatest number of people is the only good.
b) satisfying one’s desires is the only good, and having them left unsatisfied, the only bad.
c) pleasure is the only good and pain is the only bad.
d) thrill-seeking, sexual promiscuity, the consumption of drugs, and so on are the only true goods.
2. According to the text, which of the following is a direct good?
a) Concert ticket
b) A twenty-dollar bill
c) Printer ink
d) Pleasure
3. According to the text, which of the following is a direct bad?
a) The presence of pantry moths
b) An overdue bill
c) The heartache of a person whose love is unrequited
d) Failing an exam in philosophy
4. The following are all synonyms for “directly valuable” except
a) intrinsically valuable.
b) instrumentally valuable.
c) inherently valuable.
d) valuable for its own sake.
5. __________ was the most famous of all hedonists who chose to lead a simple, almost ascetic life with his/her friends in a commune.
a) Richard Layard
b) Epicurus
c) Jean-Paul Sartre
d) Susan Wolf
6. __________ claims/claimed that researchers can measure levels of happiness (pleasure) using surveys and that policymakers should make it their goal to increase the average level of happiness.
a) Richard Layard
b) Epicurus
c) Jean-Paul Sartre
d) Susan Wolf
7. Which of the following criticisms has/have been made against hedonism?
a) While pleasure is directly good, it is not the only direct good.
b) Not all pleasures are good.
c) Hedonism, as a theory, neglects meaningfulness.
d) All of the above
8. “Existentialism Is a Humanism” was written by
a) Richard Layard.
b) Epicurus.
c) Jean-Paul Sartre.
d) Susan Wolf.
9. Essence, according to Sartre, more or less means the __________ of a thing
a) purpose
b) various qualities
c) fundamental quality
d) Being
10. When Sartre says that, for human beings, “existence precedes essence,” he means
a) the universe existed before any qualities.
b) the universe existed before any purposes.
c) we first exist and only later do we acquire any qualities.
d) we first exist and only later do we acquire a purpose.
11. For Sartre, one’s essence arises owing to __________ creation of it.
a) God’s
b) Nature’s
c) one’s own
d) our society’s
12. For Sartre, creating one’s own purpose is
a) a free activity.
b) an unavoidable necessity.
c) sometimes frightening.
d) All of the above
13. Sartre defined anguish as the pain we experience
a) as essential to human life as such.
b) when forced to make difficult decisions about what to value.
c) after having made horrible decisions about what to value.
d) when seemingly good decisions turn out to be horrifying.
14. Sartre defines bad faith as a
a) way of living in which one deludes himself into thinking that he is not free to make his own decisions.
b) way of living in which one deludes himself into thinking he is making good choices, when he is making bad choices.
c) failure to realize that one’s knowledge of good and bad requires a leap of faith.
d) failure to accept the need for faith in moral life.
15. For Sartre, a particularly frequent form of bad faith is
a) seeing oneself as not bound by moral laws.
b) seeing oneself as determining the moral laws for other human beings.
c) identifying oneself with one’s social role or function (e.g., a waiter or grocer).
d) identifying oneself with the roles of society that are looked highly upon.
16. According to the text, the basis of Sartre’s disapproval of someone living in bad faith is that
a) he is not fully affirming his freedom.
b) he is not living up to his highest moral purpose as a human being.
c) he is both affirming and denying his freedom.
d) All of the above
17. Sartre’s position has been criticized insofar as
a) we do not seem to create value, but rather discover it (particularly with pleasure and pain).
b) modern materialistic science has shown we are not free in the way Sartre proposes.
c) it entirely denies the existence of nature in the “nature vs. nurture” debate.
d) human beings can rarely escape living in bad faith.
18. __________ held that “meaningful lives are lives of active engagement in projects of worth.”
a) Richard Layard
b) Epicurus
c) Jean-Paul Sartre
d) Susan Wolf
19. Which of the following does not involve active engagement?
a) Writing checks to your favorite charity
b) Climbing a mountain
c) Preparing to run a marathon
d) Running a marathon
20. For Wolf, subjective attraction meets objective attractiveness when
a) one’s personal desires correspond with the moral law.
b) one’s personal desires create a morally worthy life.
c) one is engaged in political activism.
d) one is actively engaged in a worthwhile project.
21. In addition to meaningfulness, Wolf also believed __________ was an important aspect of a good life
a) pleasure
b) happiness
c) free choice
d) moral goodness
22. According to Wolf, if there is a dispute over what constitutes a worthy activity
a) we should rely on our moral judgments and commitments, without allowing the opinions of others to affect our decision on the matter.
b) we should rely on our pretheoretical judgments, which always serve as a sure and sound guide to questions of value.
c) we should start with our pretheoretical judgments about what is of worth, and then attempt to improve our judgments with an open-minded, concentrated, and communal effort to examine and articulate the basis for them.
d) Any of the above
23. Wolf herself raised criticisms against her theory related to the fact that evaluations of worth seem
a) overly elitist.
b) purely subjective.
c) culture-bound and variable with time.
d) insufficiently grounded in nature.
Essay Questions
1. Explain the distinction between “direct” and “indirect” value. Use examples.
2. One dictionary defines “hedonism” as sensual self-indulgence. Explain the difference between hedonism in this sense and the philosophical theory known as hedonism.
3. Explain Sartre’s conception “Existence precedes essence” as well as Wolf’s objection to Sartre.
4. Explain how “active engagement” and “projects of worth” relate to Susan Wolf’s account of meaningfulness.
5. Discuss the similarities and differences between hedonism and Wolf’s account of meaningfulness.
Chapter 14
1. Of two optional actions, the sum of the numbers that measure the costs and the benefits that would result from your choosing either option is referred to as the __________ good.
a) sum total
b) quantitative
c) aggregate
d) cost–benefit
2. The decision-making process where costs and benefits are usually measured in dollars is called a(n) __________ analysis.
a) sum total
b) quantitative
c) aggregate
d) cost–benefit
3. Act consequentialism, in general, claims that the best thing to do, in any circumstance, is
a) that action that will maximize the aggregate good.
b) that action that will maximize the aggregate utility.
c) to follow that system of rules that—if generally accepted and followed—would maximize the greatest happiness of the greatest number.
d) to follow that system of rules that—if generally accepted and followed—would maximize aggregate utility.
4. Which of the following objections has been made against act consequentialism?
a) It will always be logically impossible to determine which action will maximize the aggregate good.
b) In many cases it will be logically impossible to determine which action will maximize the aggregate good.
c) It will always be very difficult to determine which action will maximize the aggregate good.
d) In many cases it will be very difficult to determine which action will maximize the aggregate good.
5. Which of the following objections has been made against act consequentialism?
a) In all cases it is logically impossible to assign numerical values to the various costs and benefits.
b) In many cases it is logically impossible to assign numerical values to the various costs and benefits.
c) In all cases it is not clear how to assign numerical values to the various costs and benefits.
d) In many cases it is not clear how to assign numerical values to the various costs and benefits.
6. Act consequentialists have responded to the difficulty/impossibility of determining the proper action to take under their theory by pointing out that
a) any ethicist who promises an easy-to-follow recipe for making big decisions is to be regarded with suspicion.
b) any ethicist who claims he has the answers to all the problems with his theory is lying.
c) no ethical theory can accomplish what is being asked of their theory.
d) the world is complicated!
7. Act utilitarianism differs from act consequentialism, in general, by
a) incorporating the reasons for actions, rather than just examining their consequences.
b) incorporating a hedonist theory of value.
c) eliminating all costs and benefits that cannot be quantified.
d) eliminating cost–benefit analysis itself.
8. The aggregate utility of an action is the sum of all the
a) benefits and costs that the action brings about.
b) utilities of the pleasures and pains that the action brings about.
c) benefits and costs brought about by following the general rule that includes whatever the action brings about.
d) utilities of the pleasures and pains that the action brings about.
9. Act utilitarians believe that the best thing to do, in any circumstance, is
a) that action that will maximize the aggregate good.
b) to follow that system of rules which—if generally accepted and followed—would maximize aggregate good.
c) to follow that system of rules, which—if generally accepted and followed—would maximize aggregate utility.
d) that action that will maximize the aggregate utility.
10. The English philosopher Jeremy Bentham was an early proponent of
a) act consequentialism.
b) act utilitarian.
c) rule consequentialism.
d) rule utilitarianism.
11. __________ wrote, “It is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong.”
a) J. S. Mill
b) Jeremy Bentham
c) Peter Singer
d) Elizabeth Anscombe
12. __________ argues that we should stop eating meat because the suffering of the farmed animals greatly exceeds the pleasures of meat-eating
a) J. S. Mill
b) Jeremy Bentham
c) Peter Singer
d) Elizabeth Anscombe
13. Which of the following objection(s) has been raised against act utilitarianism?
a) It cannot account for the different opinions people have regarding pleasure and pain.
b) It cannot account for the duties that we have to people who are close to us such as relatives, friends, and compatriots.
c) It cannot measure pleasure and pain objectively.
d) All of the above
14. __________ wrote, “But if someone really thinks, in advance, that it is open to question whether such an action as procuring the judicial execution of the innocent should be quite excluded from consideration—I do not want to argue with him; he shows a corrupt mind.”
a) J. S. Mill
b) Jeremy Bentham
c) Peter Singer
d) Elizabeth Anscombe
15. What type of utilitarianism leaves it as an open question whether the rights of one person may be sacrificed for the utility of the many?
a) Act utilitarianism
b) Rule utilitarianism
c) Neither a nor b
d) Both a and b
16. What type of utilitarianism attempts to respond to the possibility that the rights of one person may be sacrificed for the utility of the many?
a) Act utilitarianism
b) Rule utilitarianism
c) Rule consequentialism
d) All of the above
17. Rule consequentialism argues that one ought to always
a) obey that system of rules which—if generally accepted and followed—would produce the best consequences.
b) do that action that will maximize the aggregate good.
c) obey that system of rules which— if generally accepted and followed—would maximize aggregate utility.
d) do that action that will maximize the aggregate utility.
18. Rule utilitarianism is a combination of
a) act consequentialism and rules.
b) rule consequentialism and hedonism.
c) hedonism and act consequentialism.
d) rules and hedonism.
19. Rule utilitarianism claims that one ought to always
a) obey that system of rules which—if generally accepted and followed—would produce the best consequences.
b) do that action that will maximize the aggregate good.
c) obey that system of rules which—if generally accepted and followed—would maximize aggregate utility.
d) do that action that will maximize the aggregate utility.
20. Act utilitarians have criticized rule utilitarians for
a) overgeneralizing from particular actions.
b) discounting personal, subjective pleasures.
c) rule worship.
d) All of the above
21. For Kant, an action that is performed with praiseworthy motives is what type of action?
a) morally good
b) morally worthy
c) ethically serious
d) All of the above
22. “To avoid accidents, I never drive when I’m tired.” “To improve my health, I eat an apple every day with dinner.” “So I don’t get too cold, I wear a waterproof jacket when it rains.” Kant calls such formulations
a) maxims.
b) ethical statements.
c) principles of action.
d) rules of conduct.
23. Kant’s universalization test states that given a maxim, we ought to consider whether it is possible for everyone to successfully adopt the maxim. Then,
a) if it is not possible to adopt a given maxim, then actions performed on the basis of that maxim do not have moral worth.
b) if it is possible for everyone to successfully adopt a given maxim, consider whether it is possible rationally to choose that everyone adopts the maxim.
c) if it is not possible for everyone to successfully adopt a given maxim, then actions performed on the basis of that maxim do not have moral worth.
d) All of the above
24. “Many people are so sympathetically constituted that without any motive of vanity or selfishness they find an inner satisfaction in spreading joy and take delight in the contentment of others if they have made it possible.” According to Kant, such behavior as described in this passage
a) has no true moral worth.
b) may or may not have any moral worth.
c) has imperfect moral worth.
d) has the highest moral worth.
25. Kant calls the capacity for choosing goals and rationally pursuing them
a) purposiveness.
b) teleology.
c) rationality.
d) humanity.
26. The basic idea behind Kant’s humanity formula is that human beings, unlike things, are owed
a) praise.
b) grace.
c) respect.
d) equality.
27. Kant claimed that a human being is not a thing and thus
a) cannot be used merely as a means.
b) ought to behave as a human being, not a thing.
c) can freely create his own moral code.
d) has a moral code given to him by nature.
28. “So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.” This quotation captures Kant’s
a) humanity formula.
b) ends and means doctrine.
c) theory of personhood.
d) universality principle.
29. Lying, for Kant, is
a) right or wrong depending on the motive underlying the lie.
b) right if it produces a morally worthy end.
c) wrong, unless it produces a morally worthy end.
d) always wrong.
Essay Questions
1. Explain act consequentialism and act utilitarianism, noting the similarities and differences between them. Use examples.
2. Explain act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism, noting the similarities and differences between them. Use examples.
3. Explain Kant’s argument for his universalization test as well as an objection against it.
4. Explain Kant’s humanity formula and how it relates to his concept of the human being.
5. Using examples, describe the following concepts: cost–benefit analysis, aggregate good, and aggregate utility.
Chapter 15
1. According to the useage in the text, “ethics/ethical” and “morality/ moral” are
a) antonyms.
b) stylistic variants of each other.
c) ways of distinguishing between objective versus subjective approaches to right and wrong.
d) ways of referring to ethical theory, on one hand, and moral theory on the other.
2. Legality and morality
a) never correspond.
b) sometimes correspond.
c) always correspond.
d) are unrelated to one another.
3. __________ wrote, “The notion that aid can alleviate systemic poverty, and has done so, is a myth. Millions in Africa are poorer today because of aid; misery and poverty have not ended but increased. Aid has been, and continues to be, an unmitigated political, economic, and humanitarian disaster for most parts of the developing world.”
a) Peter Singer
b) Kwame Anthony Appiah
c) Dambisa Moyo
d) Norman Davies
4. __________ wrote, “I can see no escape from the conclusion that each one of us with wealth surplus to his or her essential needs should be giving most of it to help people suffering from poverty so dire as to be life-threatening. That’s right: I’m saying that you shouldn’t buy that new car, take that cruise, redecorate the house or get that pricey new suit. . . . The formula is simple: whatever money you’re spending on luxuries, not necessities, should be given away.”
a) Peter Singer
b) Kwame Anthony Appiah
c) Dambisa Moyo
d) Norman Davies
5. Regarding giving to charities, Singer’s position is that
a) it’s socially praiseworthy to give money to effective charities.
b) it’s morally praiseworthy to give money to effective charities.
c) if the typical citizen of a rich country fails to give money to effective charities, she should be socially shamed.
d) if the typical citizen of a rich country fails to give money to effective charities, she leads an immoral life.
6. According to Singer, the amount of money one is morally required to give to charities is
a) nothing: giving to charities is not a moral issue.
b) whatever amount has no noticeable effect on one’s own life.
c) whatever amount allows one to still live a pleasant, comfortable life.
d) whatever amount one spends on things that are not necessary.
7. Although Appiah agrees with Singer that the world’s richest inhabitants are duty bound to aid its poorest inhabitants, he disagrees with Singer insofar as he believes that this duty is
a) limited: the world’s richest people, in general, deserve most of their wealth.
b) subjective: the world’s richest people must determine for themselves and their family what seems fair to them.
c) collective: the world’s richest people have a shared duty to aid its poorest.
d) nationalistic: the world’s richest people ought to aid the poorest in their own countries.
8. __________ wrote, “If so many people in the world are not doing their share—and they clearly are not—it seems to me that I cannot be required to derail my life to take up the slack.”
a) Peter Singer
b) Kwame Anthony Appiah
c) Dambisa Moyo
d) Norman Davies
9. Appiah rejects which of the following premises of Singer’s argument?
a) Suffering and death from lack of food, shelter, and medical care are very bad.
b) By donating to aid agencies, the typical citizen of a wealthy country can prevent suffering and death from lack of food, shelter, and medical care without sacrificing anything nearly as important.
c) If it is in a person’s power to prevent something very bad from happening without sacrificing anything nearly as important, it is wrong for him or her not to do so.
d) If the typical citizen of a wealthy country does not donate to aid agencies, he or she is doing something wrong.
10. People who don’t think that it is wrong to buy and eat meat, but that it is wrong to buy meat from producers who treat animals inhumanely, are sometimes called
a) conscientious omnivores.
b) moderate vegetarians.
c) humane carnivores.
d) All of the above
11. In general, the argument for vegetarianism in the text rests on which of the following premises?
a) It’s wrong to harm animals.
b) It’s wrong to inflict horrible suffering on animals.
c) It’s wrong to use animals as means to our ends.
d) All of the above
12. A naturalistic property is any property that
a) can be described in the language of science.
b) is grounded in nature, rather being socially constructed.
c) is morally irrelevant.
d) All of the above
13. If two actions or situations are morally different, then they must differ in their
a) moral properties.
b) naturalistic properties
c) morally relevant properties
d) morally relevant, naturalistic properties.
14. In determining the justification or lack of justification for abortion, the text focuses on whether the child/fetus
a) is alive.
b) has rights.
c) possesses consciousness.
d) All of the above
15. One problem with using consciousness as the morally relevant naturalistic property in abortion cases is that
a) science is not able to determine precisely when consciousness arises, so it is not a naturalistic property.
b) it can often conflict with a woman’s absolute right to her own body.
c) it seems important to consider not only whether a fetus/child possesses consciousness, but also whether it will possess consciousness in the future.
d) consciousness is a disputed concept, particularly among materialists.
16. Arguments based on morally relevant naturalistic properties tend to support
a) pro-life positions.
b) pro-choice positions.
c) neither pro-life not pro-choice positions.
d) both pro-life and pro-choice positions.
17. In Judith Jarvis Thomson’s argument for abortion, she uses an analogy between a fetus and a(n)
a) violinist.
b) hamster.
c) child.
d) oyster.
18. In the text’s terminology, the “extreme pro-life position” is one where
a) the pro-life advocate goes beyond what any argument can justify.
b) the pro-life advocate’s argument puts forward a morally dubious claim.
c) abortion is morally wrong in most cases.
d) abortion is always morally wrong.
19. Which of the following is not a naturalistic property?
a) Having a mass of 80 kilograms
b) Having a blood pressure of 120/70
c) Being angry
d) Being wise
20. “Suppose that you realize that some tragedy will or may befall some other people. You can help, but there are other people who are also in a position to help. Then you are obliged to do no more than your fair share.” The text refers to this principle as
a) Appiah’s fair share principle.
b) Appiah’s obligation principle.
c) Appiah’s Tragedy of the Commons principle.
d) the Appiah principle.
21. The text criticizes the claim that it is always morally wrong to kill an innocent person based on
a) the relative character of moral rules.
b) the intangible (non-natural) character of human “rights.”
c) self-defense.
d) All of the above
22. According to the text, malnutrition relates to the argument for meat-eating insofar as
a) it shows complete vegetarianism is unhealthy.
b) it shows some meats are of dietary necessity.
c) it has been illegitimately used to criticize vegetarianism.
d) All of the above
23. __________ believed that there is nothing wrong with “going to the opera when children are dying”
a) Peter Singer
b) Kwame Anthony Appiah
c) Dambisa Moyo
d) Norman Davies
Essay Questions
1. Summarize Peter Singer’s case for his claim that “whatever money you’re spending on luxuries, not necessities, should be given away.”
2. Summarize the argument from pain against eating meat, as well as any responses a meat-eater might make against it.
3. Explain what a conscientious omnivore is, including its relation to both eating and buying meat.
4. Using examples, explain the following claim: “If two actions or situations are morally different, then they must also differ in their morally relevant, naturalistic properties.”
5. After summarizing Judith Jarvis Thomson’s story about the violinist, explain its relevance to the abortion debate.
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